我国农户生计转型的生态效应研究综述

生计作为人类最主要的行为方式,对人地系统的演化起着主导驱动作用,探讨人类生计与生态环境的相互关系成为当前人地系统科学的研究热点,农户作为广大农村最主要的经济活动主体与最基本的决策单位,其所采取的生计策略对生态环境产生着深远影响。在阐释农户生计转型及其驱动因素的基础上,建立了农户生计转型的生态效应分析框架,梳理了近年来国内农户生计转型的生态效应研究主要进展,指出未来研究中需关注农户的生计演变规律及其调控机制、农户生计策略对生态环境的作用机制、农户生计转型的生态效应评估与监测、农户的可持续生计方式塑建等关键问题。     

黄河流域旱塬区农户生计脆弱性及影响因素

黄河流域生态保护和高质量发展成为事关中华民族伟大复兴的千秋大计。人地系统协调与农业农村高质量发展是黄河流域高质量发展的重要内容,也是实施城乡融合与乡村振兴战略的内涵所在。而在气候多变、水旱灾害异常的背景下,依赖农业为生的黄河流域旱塬区农户生计面临着不可持续的威胁。当前亟需评估基于等级差异的农户生计脆弱性影响因素,建立农户的可持续生计,为巩固脱贫攻坚成果、解决相对贫困提供借鉴。以黄河流域旱塬区的渭北旱塬为例,在综合评价农户生计脆弱性指数的基础上对农户的生计脆弱性等级进行排序,使用有序logistic回归分析了影响农户生计脆弱性的关键因素,并进一步使用夏普利值进行分解。结果发现：(1)非农户和一兼户占了研究样本的大多数,从脆弱性的三个维度来看,纯农户的暴露水平最高,敏感性最低,非农户的适应能力最高;(2)回归结果表明,耕地数量、耕地质量、房屋结构、家庭固定资产数量、村民信任、整体健康状况影响显著;(3)夏普利值分解发现,生计资本的排序为：物质资本>人力资本>社会资本>自然资本,各类资本的组成成分中,家庭固定资产数量的贡献度最高,整体健康状况次之,村民信任、耕地质量、房屋结...     

山西省阳泉矿区农户可持续生计研究

矿产资源的开发,在支撑社会经济发展的同时,造成了区域资源和生态环境的改变,极大影响农户的生计方式和生活环境。基于高分辨率遥感影像分析了山西省阳泉矿区典型村庄煤矿开采前后的土地利用变化,基于可持续生计框架（Sustainable Livelihoods Framework,SLF）和参与式农村评估法（Participatory Rural Appraisal,PRA）,研究了矿区农户的生计动态及不同类型失地农户的生计可持续能力。结果表明：1）煤矿开采改变了村庄土地利用格局。耕地大面积减少,由占区域面积69.72%降为29.42%;工矿用地大幅度增加,由占区域面积7.51%增为25.01%;农村建设用地、林地、草地和水域均有不同程度的增加。2）农户的资本组合及生计方式随着煤矿开采呈现相应的动态变化,农户逐渐呈现兼业特性;不同类型失地农户的生计资本存在显著性差异。3）生计资本结构的不同造成农户生计可持续发展能力不平等,生计资本累计值越大,农户的生计可持续性越强。矿区农户生计的研究为促进农户生计资本合理配置、缓解矿区企业与农户利益冲突提供了科学依据。     

稳定性视角下黄土高原生态系统与生计系统的冲突与耦合——以陕西省佳县为例

黄土高原地区是我国生态脆弱和深度贫困的高度耦合区,长期面临生态治理和生计保障的双重压力,如何协调乡村生态系统与农户生计系统之间的平衡成为区域人地系统稳定和可持续发展的关键。基于稳定性概念内涵,以黄土高原佳县为例,采用地理空间数据和问卷调查数据,定量评价生态系统和生计系统现状,利用耦合协调度和相对发展度模型,梳理两个系统之间的相互作用关系并划分冲突与耦合类型区,在此基础上分析冲突关系的成因并提出分类治理建议,以期为区域人地矛盾缓解和可持续治理提供参考。结果表明：(1)佳县生态系统稳定性整体较高,但空间分异特征明显。县域生态稳定性格局呈“北部低值成片,南部低值分散”的特征,以道路交通用地和建设用地为表征的人为因素对生态稳定性的影响显著;(2)佳县生计系统稳定性整体处于中等级,农户生计方式已趋于多元,但生计资本仍较为匮乏。多样化的生计在一定程度上能够弥补生计资本的欠缺,而地理区位和自然条件对生计系统稳定性的维持作用仍不容忽视;(3)佳县生态系统与生计系统的相互关系以冲突为主,中度冲突、轻度冲突、濒临冲突和勉强平衡四种类型同时存在,勉强平衡区属于生态系统和生计系统稳定性双低的假性平衡,人地矛盾...     

2001: A Household Analysis of Huastec Maya Agriculture and Land Use at the Height of the Coffee Crisis

Over the last decade, historically low market prices for Coffea arabica have affected smallholder shade coffee-growing households throughout northern Latin America. In an effort to better understand household response to the coffee crisis and associated landscape changes, this paper examines agricultural production choices and land use patterns among Huastec Maya coffee-growing households. Using data compiled from 47 household interviews, I describe the cultural-geographical landscape in which the Huastec Maya land use system is embedded. In addition, I examine the economics of household production through a financial cost-benefit analysis and through an exploration of the relationship between land availability and land use patterns. Results show that economic inputs and returns from agriculture are highly variable, and that, in 2001, coffee cultivation was not a viable cash-generating strategy for most households. Land availability was found to have a significant effect on land use decisions, especially the proportion of land area devoted to fallow. Most importantly, however, the case study suggests that a purely economic approach does not suffice in explaining why the Huastec Maya continued to grow coffee in 2001, after years of low prices. Household production choices and livelihood strategies must also be viewed within a cultural context.     

Beyond Verticality: Fuelscape Politics and Practices in the Andes

This paper analyzes the material, discursive, and biophysical dimensions of fuelscapes, or energy landscapes. Ethnographic and ecological fieldwork was conducted in the Machu Picchu Historic Sanctuary, Peru. Andean land use studies have focused on agricultural patterns such as vertical production zones. Fuelscapes are an important, energy-based means of producing and representing landscape. They show how uncultivated lands fit into livelihood strategies and reflect historic sedimentation of landscape. Fuelscapes are shaped by ecological characteristics, historic settlement patterns and property rights, gendered and intergenerational divisions in household labor, and state conservation policies. Conservation policies delimit fuelscapes to privilege live trees, but the resultant denudation of dead wood may carry implications for ecosystem health. This study elucidates how official policies intersect with household and communal resource use strategies to produce Andean fuelscapes. It provides insight into how uncultivated ecosystems fit into land use politics, practices, and representation.     

Role of capitals and capabilities in ensuring economic resilience of land conservation efforts: A case study of the grain for green project in China’s Loess Hills

The article describes how economic resilience of farming households can be measured using a composite indicator of revealed adaptive actions, and investigates how capabilities of farm households to recombine human, financial, natural and physical capitals are linked to observed economic resilience to land set-aside interventions. The land set-aside intervention known as the Grain for Green Project (GGP), which has been altering livelihoods of farming households in China’s Loess Hills since 1999, is taken as a case study. Household surveys were conducted in three V-shaped valleys and three riparian areas in Yanhe Township in northwestern China in an effort to measure household resilience and explore its’ relationship to forms of capital. A composite index of adaptive strategies that can reorganize livelihood activities under land set-aside intervention into a new economic equilibrium is crafted using an objective weighting scheme based on principal component analysis. Subsequently, a multiple regression model was utilized to examine the relationship between the composite resilience index and various indicators related to human, social, financial, natural and physical capitals. The results reveal the latent structure and internal correlations of adaptive strategies, and present quantitative evidence about the relationship between livelihood capitals and household economic resilience. The analysis shows that household resilience deteriorates when the ratio of GGP land to cultivated farmland goes above a threshold level, and revealed that interventions targeting various forms of capitals can enhance the economic resilience for households to conservation efforts.     

Sustainable livelihood security index in a developing country: A tool for development planning

The paper presents an overview of the existing indicators of development and positions them within the environmental, economic, and social dimensions of sustainable development. It presents empirical evidence of sustainable livelihood security index (SLSI) at the district level in Gujarat. SLSI is a composite index having three component indices, i.e. the ecological security index (ESI), the economic efficiency index (EEI), and the social equity index (SEI). It finds that the SLSI based on its simplicity and flexibility, is one of the most comprehensive yet simple indices for measuring long-term livelihood security in rural areas. For instance, the eastern districts of the state, dominated by scheduled tribes’ population have very low EEI and SEI rankings, although they have high ESI ranking. These districts also have very low ranks in gender development index, education index, health index and housing index. Thus, the SLSI not only identifies the general priorities for development but also the nature and types of policies to be pursued in each study unit to enhance livelihood security. The SLSI facilitates consensus among different partisan groups like economists, environmentalists, and egalitarians by balancing their mutual concerns, could provide guidelines for achieving sustainable development. It can function as an educational and a policy tool for promoting a holistic perspective among planners, administrators, and development workers.     

"Strong Women" and "Pretty Girls": Self-Provisioning, Gender, and Class Identity in Rural Galicia (Spain)

In this article I examine expressions of class and gender identity in a worker-peasant community in rural Galicia (Spain). While men who have worked for decades in migrant destinations define their own class positionality partly through reference to the unpaid, subsistence work that is performed mainly by women who remain in the community, these same women adeptly "code switch" between "strong woman" and '"pretty girl" demeanors through their work activities, dress, and use of domestic spaces. Using the example of ethnographic data from this one part of rural Europe, 1 argue for the broader importance of anthropologists considering how laboring bodies become gendered; the intersections between gender and class identities; and connections among mixed livelihood strategies, the continuity of self-provisioning activities, and resistance to fully commoditized consumption. [Key words: class and gender identity, Galicia, Spain, unpaid provisioning work, consumption]     

典型沙漠化地区农户生计资本对生计策略的影响——以内蒙古自治区杭锦旗为例

提升农户兼业化程度是解决农户贫困与生态环境脆弱等关键问题的主要途径。采用参与式的农村评估法(PRA),以地处库布其沙漠腹地的杭锦旗为例,在对农户生计资本和生计策略分析的基础上,建立了多项Logistic回归模型,就农户生计策略由纯农型向农兼型和兼农型转化的关键影响因素进行研究。结果表明:(1)农户生计资本整体上比较稀缺,其中自然资本最为匮乏,且生计资本值存在一定差异。(2)农户主要采取纯农型、农兼型、兼农型和非农型四种生计策略;不同生计策略类型的农户在生计活动安排及其收入构成上存在一定差异。(3)人力资本始终是影响农户生计策略转化的关键生计资本;家庭整体劳动能力(H1)、人均耕地面积(N1)、人均年收入(F1)和能够提供援助的亲友数(S2)是影响农户生计策略转化的关键生计资本指标。除N1外,以上生计资本及生计资本指标对农户生计策略由纯农型向农兼型和兼农型转化均具有促进作用。在此基础上,提出了提高杭锦旗农户生计水平,改善区域生态环境的政策建议。     

Women's Income and the Livelihood Strategies of Dispossessed Pastoralists Near the Mkomazi Game Reserve, Tanzania

There are numerous incidences of impoverishment and livelihood change in pastoral societies following transformations in land use, and land and livestock ownership. Opinion is divided over the effect of these changes on women. This paper considers the case of the former residents of the Mkomazi Game Reserve. Pastoralists were evicted from the Reserve in the late 1980s and their livelihoods have changed as a result. I show that women from poorer households now have to sell milk, firewood, or medicine frequently to meet daily family needs, but I argue that increased income-earning activity by women is not only the result of impoverishment. Selling goods is useful for women as it provides an income that they control and some choose to earn their own money. The income resulting is also subject to intrahousehold power dynamics. Women may have to sell more goods more often and may be less free to use the money as they wish because men sometimes withdraw normal provisions for day-to-day needs in the expectation that women's income will meet the deficit. Debates over the changing status of women in pastoral society need to be cognizant of these intrahousehold contests.     

Effects of Landscape Segregation on Livelihood Vulnerability: Moving From Extensive Shifting Cultivation to Rotational Agriculture and Natural Forests in Northern Laos

This study investigates four decades of socio-economic and environmental change in a shifting cultivation landscape in the northern uplands of Laos. Historical changes in land cover and land use were analyzed using a chronological series of remote sensing data. Impacts of landscape change on local livelihoods were investigated in seven villages through interviews with various stakeholders. The study reveals that the complex mosaics of agriculture and forest patches observed in the study area have long constituted key assets for the resilience of local livelihood systems in the face of environmental and socio-economic risks. However, over the past 20 years, a process of segregating agricultural and forest spaces has increased the vulnerability of local land users. This process is a direct outcome of policies aimed at increasing national forest cover, eradicating shifting cultivation and fostering the emergence of more intensive and commercial agricultural practices. We argue that agriculture-forest segregation should be buffered in such a way that a diversity of livelihood opportunities and economic development pathways can be maintained.     

Cross-Site Comparison of Land-Use Decision-Making and Its Consequences across Land Systems with a Generalized Agent-Based Model

Local changes in land use result from the decisions and actions of land-users within land systems, which are structured by local and global environmental, economic, political, and cultural contexts. Such cross-scale causation presents a major challenge for developing a general understanding of how local decision-making shapes land-use changes at the global scale. This paper implements a generalized agent-based model (ABM) as a virtual laboratory to explore how global and local processes influence the land-use and livelihood decisions of local land-users, operationalized as settlement-level agents, across the landscapes of six real-world test sites. Test sites were chosen in USA, Laos, and China to capture globally-significant variation in population density, market influence, and environmental conditions, with land systems ranging from swidden to commercial agriculture. Publicly available global data were integrated into the ABM to model cross-scale effects of economic globalization on local land-use decisions. A suite of statistics was developed to assess the accuracy of model-predicted land-use outcomes relative to observed and random (i.e. null model) landscapes. At four of six sites, where environmental and demographic forces were important constraints on land-use choices, modeled land-use outcomes were more similar to those observed across sites than the null model. At the two sites in which market forces significantly influenced land-use and livelihood decisions, the model was a poorer predictor of land-use outcomes than the null model. Model successes and failures in simulating real-world land-use patterns enabled the testing of hypotheses on land-use decision-making and yielded insights on the importance of missing mechanisms. The virtual laboratory approach provides a practical framework for systematic improvement of both theory and predictive skill in land change science based on a continual process of experimentation and model enhancement.     

基于土地多功能的黄土丘陵沟壑区生态保护与发展情景评估及多主体模拟

黄土高原丘陵沟壑区生态环境脆弱,近几十年生态保护工程的实施带来显著的生态恢复效果,也对农户的生计策略与区域粮食安全产生了影响。刻画生态脆弱区人-地系统复杂响应过程,可以为区域可持续的土地利用管理模式提供依据。研究从土地多功能出发,着眼于黄土丘陵沟壑区河谷川地、梁峁区域、黄土塬地、土石山地以及城郊区域等不同的典型地貌类型与代表区域,采用多层次利益相关者参与式的评估框架,以农户的耕地利用行为及生态工程影响与未来发展为切入点,设置惯性发展情景、发展优先兼顾生态情景、农业优先兼顾生态情景以及生态优先兼顾发展情景,构建多智能体模型对区域土地利用与土地多功能的时空变化开展模拟。主要结果表明：(1)生态优先兼顾发展情景综合影响最高且对各维度影响相对均衡,而农业优先兼顾生态情景对区域土地的经济维度的功能和社会维度具有更为明显的提升效应;(2)根据土地多功能空间变化模拟结果,区域土地利用破碎化明显且耕地的撂荒对全域土地多功能均表现出明显的限制作用,农业优先兼顾生态情景中土地功能发生下降的面积最少;(3)发生土地功能下降的区域主要分布在土地质量较差、坡度处于5—15°范围内、地形起伏度较大以及距离道路较远...     

Navigating challenges and opportunities of land degradation and sustainable livelihood development in dryland social–ecological systems: a case study from Mexico

Drylands are one of the most diverse yet highly vulnerable social–ecological systems on Earth. Water scarcity has contributed to high levels of heterogeneity, variability and unpredictability, which together have shaped the long coadaptative process of coupling humans and nature. Land degradation and desertification in drylands are some of the largest and most far-reaching global environmental and social change problems, and thus are a daunting challenge for science and society. In this study, we merged the Drylands Development Paradigm, Holling''s adaptive cycle metaphor and resilience theory to assess the challenges and opportunities for livelihood development in the Amapola dryland social–ecological system (DSES), a small isolated village in the semi-arid region of Mexico. After 450 years of local social–ecological evolution, external drivers (neoliberal policies, change in land reform legislation) have become the most dominant force in livelihood development, at the cost of loss of natural and cultural capital and an increasingly dysfunctional landscape. Local DSESs have become increasingly coupled to dynamic larger-scale drivers. Hence, cross-scale connectedness feeds back on and transforms local self-sustaining subsistence farming conditions, causing loss of livelihood resilience and diversification in a globally changing world. Effective efforts to combat desertification and improve livelihood security in DSESs need to consider their cyclical rhythms. Hence, we advocate novel dryland stewardship strategies, which foster adaptive capacity, and continuous evaluation and social learning at all levels. Finally, we call for an effective, flexible and viable policy framework that enhances local biotic and cultural diversity of drylands to transform global drylands into a resilient biome in the context of global environmental and social change.     

Declaration of Taking Twice: The Fazendeville Community of the Lower Ninth Ward

The Fazendeville Village was a residential community founded during the Reconstruction era in 1867 on the land where the Battle of New Orleans (1815) was fought during the War of 1812 in what is now Chalmette, LA. The entire community was displaced and their homes were razed in 1964 to provide more land for the National Historical Park to commemorate the battle. Most of the residents moved to the Lower Ninth Ward in New Orleans and now, 42 years later, they are displaced again and their homes (those that are still standing) will be razed because of the devastation of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita and the floods. Previous research has proven that vernacular networks affect the exodus, return, recovery, and rebuilding of certain communities after traumatic situations. In this study, I suggest that in the Fazendeville community during past trauma, the maintenance of cultural livelihood was caused by communality, spirituality, and traditionality. In addition, I propose that these are also the vernacular networks that are catalyst for community renewal and empowerment—after hurricanes, floods, and historic displacement by the federal government. My ultimate goal is to transform ethnographies into a praxis capable of making the community present and not marginalized or excluded from history and the strategic plan for rebuilding New Orleans.     

Livelihood activities and land-use at a riparian frontier of the Brazilian Amazon: quantitative characterization and qualitative insights into the influence of knowledge,values, and beliefs

We examined if smallholders that immigrated to the Amazon over the last 40 years (highway-era families) and households with historical ties to the region (rubber-era families) adopt different livelihood activities and land-use/land-cover (LULC) patterns, in four communities along the Tapajós River in the Brazilian Amazon. Using quantitative data, we characterized three portfolios of livelihood activities, each associated to different LULC. Both rubber-era and highway-era families practice a wide range of activities from all portfolios; however, families that have been in the region for several generations tend to adopt traditional activities (e.g., fishing, non-timber forest product gathering and sales), while recently settled families tend to practice agrarian activities more intensively (e.g., cattle ranching, sale of non-native crops). We then draw on qualitative data to examine some of the underlying reasons for these differences. While recognizing that livelihoods are complex systems with many influential factors, we reflect on some of the overlooked drivers of livelihood and LULC choices such as knowledge, visions of development, and the immaterial value and symbolic meaning of resources. We also reflect on how they shape intended land management choices and relate to household settlement histories. The implications for regional resource-use planning and future research are mentioned.     

基于保护地役权的自然保护地适应性管理方法探讨: 以钱江源国家公园体制试点区为例

我国的自然保护地普遍存在着科学管控难、统一管理难和资金供给难等问题, 即便是国家公园体制试点区也不例外。本文以钱江源国家公园体制试点区为例, 设计了基于细化保护需求的保护地役权制度, 以探索一种能解决上述问题并能体现生态补偿的适应性管理方法, 包括: 细化主要保护对象的管理需求, 结合土地利用类型, 确定实施保护地役权的空间范围; 辨析保护需求和原住民生产、生活之间的关系, 形成正负行为的准则并以行为清单的形式体现; 从生态系统监测指标改善情况、正负行为遵守情况和社区能力建设三个维度制定地役权制度的评价方法; 据此形成地役权合同, 明确供役地人和需役地人的权责利, 形成考虑保护绩效的生态补偿方案。这种方法可以解决自然保护地因为权属不一致造成的生态系统和景观破碎化问题, 缓解社区发展和生态保护之间的矛盾, 在我国南方集体林地占比较高的自然保护地具有适用性。     

黄土高原农户生计转型及其生态效应——以陕西省佳县为例

在乡村地域系统人地关系日趋复杂的情况下,农户生计活动与生态环境之间的关系已成为生态效应研究的核心。本文以陕西省佳县为研究区,结合遥感影像、GIS技术和实地调研获取的微观数据,对1990年以来典型生态脆弱区农户生计对生态环境的影响进行长时序动态监测和分析,从农户种植结构、收入结构和劳动力要素投入结构对农户生计类型和乡村发展类型进行界定,分析农户生计转型过程和特征,基于土地利用分析生境质量时空变化,以生境质量为媒介分析农户生计转型的生态效应。主要结论如下：(1)佳县农户类型和乡村类型演化特征显著。从农户尺度上看,农户生计类型从以粮食主导型为主,逐渐演化为非农主导型为主粮食主导型为辅的组合模式。从乡村类型上看,传统农业型和新型农业型均逐渐演化为非农业型。(2)农户生计转型路径由多元化逐渐转向单一非农化发展,不同农户生计转型过程存在差异,按照转型路径特征可分为4类：持续稳定型、渐进型、调整型和倒退型。(3)生境退化度呈下降态势,从退化等级上看,无退化、轻度退化和中度退化等级面积增加,高度退化等级面积减少,严重退化等级面积降低为0。生境质量呈波动上升态势,从等级上看,占主导的为优等和较差等级,且...     

Incorporating livelihoods in biodiversity conservation: a case study of cacao agroforestry systems in Talamanca,Costa Rica

Over the past two decades, various organizations have promoted cacao agroforestry systems as a tool for biodiversity conservation in the Bribri-Cabécar indigenous territories of Talamanca, Costa Rica. Despite these efforts, cacao production is declining and is being replaced by less diverse systems that have lower biodiversity value. Understanding the factors that influence household land use is essential in order to promote cacao agroforestry systems as a viable livelihood strategy. We incorporate elements of livelihoods analyses and socioeconomic data to examine cacao agroforestry systems as a livelihood strategy compared with other crops in Talamanca. Several factors help to explain the abandonment of cacao agroforestry systems and their conversion to other land uses. These factors include shocks and trends beyond the control of households such as crop disease and population growth and concentration, as well as structures and processes such as the shift from a subsistence to a cash-based economy, relative prices of cacao and other cash crops, and the availability of market and government support for agriculture. We argue that a livelihoods approach provides a useful framework to examine the decline of cacao agroforestry systems and generates insights on how to stem the rate of their conversion to less diverse land uses.