An assessment methodology to combine the preservation of biodiversity and cultural heritage: the San Vincenzo al Volturno historical site (Molise,Italy)

The interaction between natural, archaeological and agricultural elements is evident in many historical sites, such as the Medieval Benedictine Monastery of San Vincenzo al Volturno, located in an area of great agricultural and environmental value. Biodiversity issues are rarely considered in archaeological conservation and vice versa. This paper describes an assessment methodology for the evaluation of the natural and historical value of a site, necessary for a proper evaluation and as a preparatory step to aid decision-making and planning. In the analysed area, our findings showed an interesting floristic and vegetational heterogeneity, which were extremely valuable from a conservation point of view. Few alien species were found. Comparison with protected or endangered species and habitat lists led to the identification of a series of areas in need of more active protection, including arid grasslands presenting high biodiversity and attributable to the 6210* European Habitat. A cultural landscape evaluation was based on archaeobotanical and historical data, and it shows an interesting mosaic system. An assessment of the interaction between natural vegetation and monuments showed minimal impact from wall vegetation but a high potential risk due to wood colonisation in an area with unexcavated buildings. The usefulness of such an approach in the management of an archaeological site is that it offers an opportunity for optimisation: a proper evaluation can reduce the risk of damage and the presence of the archaeological park allows for protection and highlights natural valuable elements.     

Changes in the vegetation and human management of forest resources in mountain ecosystems at the beginning of MIS 1 (14.7–8 ka cal BP) in Balma Guilanyà (Southeastern Pre-Pyrenees,Spain)

The site of Balma Guilanyà (southeastern Spain) records an extensive human occupation during the beginning of MIS 1, based on a variety of archaeobotanical indicators, although its sequence contains gaps in the record of human occupation. The study of different archaeological proxies recovered from its sequence, especially charcoal, seeds and fruits, allows analysis of the ecological changes that occurred at the southern flanks of the Pyrenees from the Bølling/Allerød amelioration to the Boreal. The analyses also illuminate the strategies developed by hunter-gatherers of the northeastern Iberian Peninsula, and especially of the changes in firewood used at this site over a long time (over 5000 years), which indirectly provide information about the transformation of the plant communities of mountain ecosystems. In parallel, a growing interest in re-collecting wild fruits can be perceived. The results suggest that this activity was widely in use during the early Holocene, although it may go back to the Allerød. These results suggest that despite the limitations of the archaeobotanical record of Balma Guilanyà, we can recognize different patterns in the management of plant resources by the hunter-gatherers that intermittently visited this site.     

The impact of mining on the woody vegetation of the southern Andes: a study of charcoal from the Andean Precordillera in central western Argentina in the 18th and 19th centuries

Mining has played an important role in the generation of economic wealth since colonial times in South America. However, the impact of historical mining on the environment has not been studied in detail. In view of this, and based on the analysis of archaeological and modern wood data, we discuss the impact of historical mining and human occupation on the woody vegetation of an arid region in the southern Andes. We present the results of the analysis of archaeobotanical charcoal remains recovered from the “Los Hornillos” mining site located in the Andean Precordillera, northwestern Mendoza Province, Argentina. The archaeobotanical materials date from the late 18th to the early 19th century. Based upon wood anatomy, 60% of charcoal fragments were associated with Adesmia cf. uspallatensis, a shrub widely distributed there. We assessed the impact and legacy of human occupation on local and regional plant communities based on charcoal evidence, archaeological data and the age of living A. uspallatensis shrubs growing around the mining site. This analysis allowed us to determine the rate of growth of this species (1.22 mm per year) and mean maximum ages of around 70 years. Therefore, the current development of woody communities in this area is thought to be representative of recovery after historical mining and occupation across the Andean Precordillera and suggests that obtaining firewood for mining activities constituted an important factor influencing past natural vegetation dynamics.

     

Distinguishing food from fodder through the study of charred plant remains: an experimental approach to dung-derived chaff

Distinguishing human food from fodder in the archaeobotanical record is a difficult task. These categories are culturally defined and, therefore, not obvious from the plant species represented in archaeological samples, while context, such as storage area or container is not necessarily distinctive for each category. While grain can be consumed as either human food or fodder, depending on the particular needs of a given society, chaff is less suitable for human consumption and more appropriate for other uses, one of which is fodder. Archaeobotanical assemblages from two Late Neolithic sites in northern Greece (Makriyalos and Makri) are dominated by glume-wheat chaff, often in association with fig seeds. This material may well represent the remains of dung, but it was not known if the cereal component was eaten by livestock or mixed with the dung to form dung cakes. Our contribution presents the results of an experiment involving the feeding of einkorn grain and chaff (whole and pounded spikelets) and figs to goats to investigate the effect of livestock digestion on plant material. The implications of this work for the interpretation of archaeobotanical assemblages that may derive from animal dung are considered using the Greek Neolithic assemblages. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article at     

An archaeobotanical contribution to the history of watermelon,<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Citrullus lanatus</Emphasis> (Thunb.) Matsum. &; Nakai (syn.<Emphasis Type="Italic"> C. vulgaris</Emphasis> Schrad.)

The discovery of several 5000-year old seeds of wild watermelon, Citrullus lanatus, at an archaeological site Uan Muhuggiag in southwest Libya, re-opens the debate on the origin, wild distribution and domestication history of this species. The seeds were found within a plant assemblage of wild seeds and fruits, associated with pottery and bones of domestic animals belonging to Neolithic pastoralists. The presumed wild progenitor of the modern cultivar C. lanatus is today found exclusively in a region centring on the Kalahari Desert. This new archaeobotanical record raises the possibility that this distribution was much more extensive in the past.     

Experimental approaches to understanding variation in grain size in Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) and its relevance for interpreting archaeobotanical assemblages

The dimensions of archaeobotanical grains identified as Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) vary greatly in size. This is illustrated by the remains from the archaeological site of Zanovskoe in eastern Ukraine (5th–1st centuries cal. b.c.). We carried out experimental work on broomcorn millet plants and grains, aiming at a comprehensive understanding of factors that may have contributed to variation in the grain size of broomcorn millet in archaeobotanical assemblages. We analyzed the dependence of grain size variation on selected environmental and taphonomic factors. Our results indicate that immaturity is more likely than environmental stress to account for small grain size in broomcorn millet plants. Depending on charring temperature and time, immature broomcorn millet grains can withstand charring and are potentially preserved in archaeological assemblages. Depending on maturity level, such grains vary in size and shape. These results are potentially important for accurate identification of archaeobotanical specimens.     

Rate of succession in restored wetlands and the role of site context

Question: Are changes in plant species composition, functional group composition and rates of species turnover consistent among early successional wetlands, and what is the role of landscape context in determining the rate of succession? Location: Twenty‐four restored wetlands in Illinois, USA. Methods: We use 4 years of vegetation sampling data from each site to describe successional trends and rates of species turnover in wetlands. We quantify: (1) the rate at which composition changes from early‐successional to late‐successional species and functional groups, as indicated by site movement in ordination space over time, and (2) the rate of change in the colonization and local extinction of individual species. We correlate the pace of succession to site area, isolation and surrounding land cover. Results: Some commonalities in successional trends were evident among sites. Annual species were replaced by clonal perennials, and colonization rates declined over time. However, differences among sites outweighed site age in determining species composition, and the pace of succession was influenced by a site's landscape setting. Rates of species turnover were higher in smaller wetlands. In addition, wetlands in agricultural landscapes underwent succession more rapidly, as indicated by a rapid increase in dominance by late‐successional plants. Conclusions: Although the outcome of plant community succession in restored wetlands was somewhat predictable, species composition and the pace of succession varied among sites. The ability of restoration practitioners to accelerate succession through active manipulation may be contingent upon landscape context.     

Biodiversity Characterization in Nubra Valley, Ladakh with Special Reference to Plant Resource Conservation and Bioprospecting

Trans-Himalayan mountains, owing to harsh climatic conditions and a short growing season support low vegetation cover (<20%), yet it is known to harbour a unique assemblage of flora and fauna which have not been systematically inventoried and documented so far. This paper deals with spatial and non-spatial information on landscape units, vegetation characteristics and plant species diversity of Nubra Valley in Ladakh, India. Based on digital – visual (on screen) interpretation of remote sensing data coupled with knowledge-based classification we delineated 19 cover classes (11 vegetation types and 8 non-vegetation categories). The vascular plants (angiosperms and gymnosperms) were systematically collected using stratified random sampling of different landscape/vegetation to characterize plant communities and assess the distribution patterns of species. The study reveals that nearly 78–80% of plant species in Nubra are restricted to the valley bottoms. In all, 414 species of vascular plants were recorded from the study area. These belongs to 56 families and 202 genera. Of these, 102 species were reported to be used in traditional system of medicine by Amchis over 80 species are largely associated with cultivated fields and human habitation. As many as 49 species were cultivated which include several varieties of crop plants especially those of barley and buckwheat. Aspects of bioprospecting and conservation of valuable species have been discussed.     

Coquille flora (Louisiana): An ethnobotanical reconstruction

Investigations and findings of a floristic study at Coquille, an archaeological site in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, are reported. In contrast with the surrounding marsh and swamp, there is a distinctive diversity in the vegetation at the site. Most of the plants are native species that have been reported as ethnobotahically important to the southeastern Indians. It is postulated that if the plant community present at Coquille today were present in prehistory, this area was rich in botanical species potentially useful for foods, medicines, and other material resources.     

From foraging to farming in the southern Levant: the development of Epipalaeolithic and Pre-pottery Neolithic plant management strategies

This paper reviews the archaeobotanical record of the transition from foraging to farming in the southern Levant. The concise presentation of the published botanical evidence follows a critical assessment of: (a) the nature of Epipalaeolithic plant management strategies, (b) the place of the southern Levant in the polycentric development of Near Eastern plant cultivation and domestication, and (c) region-specific pathways for the emergence of domesticated crop “packages”. Some inferences are drawn and suggestions are made concerning the potential contribution of archaeobotanical research to questions of broader archaeological significance about socio-economic change in the southern Levant during the Pre-pottery Neolithic.     

Habitat functionality for the ecosystem service of pest control: reproduction and feeding sites of pests and natural enemies

• 1 Landscape management for enhanced natural pest control requires knowledge of the ecological function of the habitats present in the landscape mosaic. However, little is known about which habitat types in agricultural landscapes function as reproduction habitats for arthropod pests and predators during different times of the year.
• 2 We studied the arthropod assemblage on six crops and on the seven most abundant native plant species in two landscapes over 1 year in Australia. Densities of immature and adult stages of pests and their predators were assessed using beat sheet sampling.
• 3 The native plants supported a significantly different arthropod assemblage than crops. Native plants had higher predator densities than crops over the course of the year, whereas crops supported higher pest densities than the native plants in two out of four seasonal sampling periods. Crops had higher densities of immature stages of pests than native plants in three of four seasonal sampling periods, implying that crops are more strongly associated with pest reproduction than native plants. Densities of immature predators, excluding spiders, were not different between native plants and crops. Spiders were, however, generally abundant and densities were higher on native plants than on crops but, because some species disperse when immature, there is less certainty in identifying their reproduction habitat.
• 4 Because the predator to pest ratio on native plant species showed little variation, and spatial variation in arthropod assemblages was limited, the predator support function of native vegetation may be a general phenomenon. Incentives that maintain and restore native remnant vegetation can increase the predator to pest ratio at the landscape scale, which could enhance pest suppression in crops.

     

Roman food refuse: urban archaeobotany in Pompeii, Regio VI, Insula 1

Although world-renowned as an archaeological site, there have been few research projects in Pompeii looking at the spatial and chronological patterning of plant food use from an archaeobotanical perspective. The recent 12 years of archaeological excavations (1995–2006) by the Anglo-American Project in Pompeii have provided a rare opportunity to investigate a whole city block (Regione VI, Insula 1). This included a blanket sampling strategy of all contexts where archaeobotanical macro-remains, both carbonised and calcium phosphate replaced material, have been recovered, the results from which are reported here. The low density scatters of recurrent taxa from the majority of contexts examined in this study suggest that they were composed of table waste and kitchen food preparation waste and represent an expected ‘background noise’ of Roman cooking and consumption. This includes the standard ‘Mediterranean package’ of olives, grapes, figs, cereals and pulses. The general lack of evidence for crop-processing within the insula suggests that this was probably carried out elsewhere, probably within the city’s hinterland. These results support the established view that Pompeii was a fully urbanised city in the 1st century b.c. There appears to be an increase in olive consumption in the 1st century a.d., which may be suggested to correlate with ‘Romanisation’ and an increase in olive growing in the region.     

Medieval plant depictions as a source for archaeobotanical research

This paper summarises the research methodology and most important results of a study which was carried out on flowering plant depictions (representations) in late medieval religious paintings from southern central Europe. This approach derives from the studies of material culture by historians of everyday life. Plant depictions may be used as a source for archaeobotanical research and studies into vegetation history after fully recognising their particularities. Firstly, the pictures show “the reality effect” and not reality itself, and an abundance of apparently realistically depicted objects; secondly, the research must be fully contextual, considering both the contemporary cultural background and participants involved. Thirdly, as pictures are great mosaics of different experience and knowledge, their language is symbolic and their relationship with geographical space uncertain. This, however, does not mean that reading and interpreting pictures is impossible. The major results of this study include the list of plant species not discovered from archaeobotanical research; the knowledge that the frequencies of occurrence of plant depictions might correspond to their occurrence in real cultural spaces that also may be indicated in pictures; and it highlights the importance of using several types of sources when pursuing research into the history, uses and perceptions of plants in the medieval period.     

Facilitation by nurse plants contributes to vegetation recovery in human-disturbed desert ecosystems

Aims Facilitation by nurse plants is a common interaction in harsh environments and this positive plant–plant interaction may promote vegetation recovery in ecosystems affected by human activities. Determining the relevance of this process, however, requires assessing how nurse plants influence the establishment of other species, as well as the proportion of species in the regional species pool that would benefit from the presence of nurse plants in human-disturbed areas. Further, since vegetation recovery is a time-dependent process, the community-level consequences of facilitation are likely to vary among landscapes with different disturbance history. Thus, an integrative perspective of the relevance of nurse plants for vegetation recovery could be obtained by measuring their effects across different human-disturbed landscapes of the target region. This study focuses on these issues and uses a regional-scale approach to assess the community-level effects of a widespread nurse plant of American deserts, the creosotebush (Larrea tridentata).Methods This study was conducted in the southernmost portion of Chihuahuan Desert because most floodplain valleys of this region have been affected by human activities during the past centuries. For this study, we selected 10 floodplain valleys differing in their age (i.e. the time elapsed after human activities were ceased). At each landscape, we measured the cover of creosotebushes and the proportion of plant species positively associated with them, as well as the density of seeds in the soil beneath creosotebush canopies. All these data were regressed against the age of the landscapes. Further, to assess whether positive association patterns were due to facilitation or other processes, we conducted field experiments and measured the ecophysiological performance of plant species established beneath and outside creosotebush canopies.Important findings Most plant species from the target region were positively associated to creosotebushes, and our field experiments and ecophysiological measures indicated that these distribution patterns can be attributed to facilitative interactions. In most landscapes, the density of seeds was higher beneath creosotebushes than in the surrounding habitats, suggesting that these shrubs may also act as seed traps. The community-level effects of creosotebushes increased with landscape age and creosotebush cover, indicating that magnitude of these effects depends on the disturbance history of each site. These results highlight the relevance of performing large-scale assessments for identifying the consequences of facilitation on vegetation recovery across space and time. We then propose that this kind of large-scale approach should be taken into account in the development of conservation programs aimed at the recovery and preservation of plant biodiversity in harsh environments.     

Archaeology, land use, pollen and restoration in the Yazoo Basin (Mississippi, USA)

Increasingly, modern ecologists are realizing that the history of ecological systems is crucially important for understanding the landscape and that human land use has a great impact on the trajectory of ecosystems. The Yazoo Basin of Mississippi (USA) is one area in which palaeoecological and archaeological research has been done, but at a time when interpretations of the results relied on paradigms that gave credence only to climate change as a causal factor in explaining vegetation histories of plant communities. This paper uses knowledge of ecological processes and patterns of plant colonization and succession to make testable expectations for vegetation composition and change related to human action. An existing pollen record from the area is then examined in light of these expectations and reveals evidence that humans were an integral part of the ecosystem in this area, influencing the trajectory of vegetation history over thousands of years.     

Archaeobotanical evidence for early agriculture at Ljubjansko barje (Ljubljana Moor), central Slovenia

Archaeobotanical evidence is presented for early agriculture at southwestern Ljubljansko barje (Ljubljana Moor), Slovenia. Archaeobotanical finds from the Eneolithic site at Hočevarica, and pollen records from an archaeological profile and from a nearby core were analysed. Numerous charred grains of cultivated cereals together with fossil seeds of Chenopodium sp. demonstrate that during the occupation of the settlement at Hočevarica, agriculture was well established. The majority of identified grains were of Hordeum vulgare (cultivated barley) and the rest were Triticum monococcum and T. turgidum ssp. dicoccum (cultivated wheats). Large amounts of cereal pollen and pollen of Chenopodiaceae also suggest strong human impact on the surrounding vegetation and landscape. Pollen and archaeobotanical data from Hočevarica show a large consistency in timing of the appearance of agriculture. In the pollen record from the core at Hočevarica a significant increase (up to 40%) in cereal pollen was detected at 4881 ± 50 B.P. (3770-3630 cal B.C.). Charred cereal grains were dated to 4800 ± 40 B.P. (3650-3520 cal B.C.). The grains of cultivated cereals from Hočevarica represent the oldest archaeobotanical evidence for agriculture in central Slovenia. Received February 18, 2002 / Accepted October 21, 2002     

外马廊山岛植被特性与植物多样性

该研究对无居民海岛舟山外马廊山岛进行初步踏勘,了解该岛植被特征与植物多样性,探讨海岛植被与大陆植被的差异性,并对海岛植物的主要植物组成、生活型结构、地理成分、群落类型以及多样性和相似性进行了分析。结果表明:外马廊山岛面积小,共有33科51属55种植物,植物种类偏少,留存有普陀狗哇花,滨柃,厚叶石斑木等具有滨海特色植物,具有开发潜力。外马廊山岛热带成分较为明显,与附近地区较为相似。岛上群落优势种或建群种的科为山茶科,大戟科,松科等,与大陆的常绿阔叶林的优势种或建群种的优势科如樟科,金缕梅科,壳斗科,山茶科等不大相同。岛上植物主要以高位芽植物为主(58.18%),但较大陆常绿阔叶林的高位芽植物比例要低。外马廊山岛植物群落结构简单,植物多样性相对较低,物种丰富较低,主要原因在于生态适应性和演替过程的差异,岛上植物群落演替至稳定群落还需要相当一段时间。外来种比例占9.09%,外来种如黑松和红鸡竹能形成群落或在群落中具有较为明显的优势,并可能会造成一定的生态干扰。     

Monitoring shifts in plant diversity in response to climate change: a method for landscapes

Improved sampling designs are needed to detect, monitor, and predict plant migrations and plant diversity changes caused by climate change and other human activities. We propose a methodology based on multi-scale vegetation plots established across forest ecotones which provide baseline data on patterns of plant diversity, invasions of exotic plant species, and plant migrations at landscape scales in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, USA. We established forty two 1000-m² plots in relatively homogeneous forest types and the ecotones between them on 14 vegetation transects. We found that 64% of the variance in understory species distributions at landscape scales were described generally by gradients of elevation and under-canopy solar radiation. Superimposed on broad-scale climatic gradients are small-scale gradients characterized by patches of light, pockets of fertile soil, and zones of high soil moisture. Eighteen of the 42 plots contained at least one exotic species; monitoring exotic plant invasions provides a means to assess changes in native plant diversity and plant migrations. Plant species showed weak affinities to overstory vegetation types, with 43% of the plant species found in three or more vegetation types. Replicate transects along several environmental gradients may provide the means to monitor plant diversity and species migrations at landscape scales because: (1) ecotones may play crucial roles in expanding the geophysiological ranges of many plant species; (2) low affinities of understory species to overstory forest types may predispose vegetation types to be resilient to rapid environmental change; and (3) ecotones may help buffer plant species from extirpation and extinction.     

Comparison of an intuitive mapping classification and numerical classifications of vegetation in south-east Queensland,Australia

Hierarchical agglomerative polythetic clustering of vegetation data for 51 sites from Brian Pastures Research Station, south-east Queensland, Australia, produced site and species groups that supported those formed during a previous intuitive mapping survey. On the basis of floristic composition, these analyses suggested the possible amalgamation of some map units. However, their segregation into separate units was justified on the basis of having distinct photopatterns and physiographic positions in the landscape. The classifications of the trees only (55 species) and woody plants only (115 species) data sets produced site groupings of high similarity to those constructed by the mapping survey. The addition of the herbaceous plants (266 additional species, of which 70% were annual species) tended to dominate the analyses, and produce site groupings that were less similar to the mapping groups. The distribution of many annual species appeared to be independent of the perennial plant species and underlying substrate. In wooded communities, herbaceous plants have only a minor influence on photopattern, which is the primary determinant of the mapping classification. Binary data retained a large percentage of the information contained in the quantitative data. The extra effort of gathering herbaceous data may not be justified for a broad scale mapping project, but is required for comprehensive nature conservation surveys, flora inventory, and vegetation monitoring purposes.     

深圳市城区主要园林植物的物候特征及其景观效应分析

本文立足于对深圳市城区几大公园的园林植物调查和统计,对主要园林树种的抽梢展叶期、生长期、落叶期、开花期、结果期、果熟期等物候指标进行观察记录,确定植物物候特征,并分析其对植被景观的影响,对植被景观改造以及树种的选择提供合理建议。