Effects of salinity and benzyl adenine on development and function of microhairs of Zea mays L

Bicellular microhairs are present on the surfaces of leaves of grasses with the exception of the Pooideae. In some halophytic grasses, these glandular hairs secrete salt, suggesting the intriguing question ‘can the microhairs of grasses that do not normally encounter salinity also secrete salt?’ Microhairs were counted in replicas of the adaxial and abaxial surfaces of leaves of various ages of maize plants growing either in the absence of salt or in the presence of 40, 80 or 120 mM NaCl. The number of microhairs per unit area of adaxial leaf surface of the youngest leaf almost doubled as the salinity increased from zero to 120 mM NaCl; on the abaxial surface, the number of microhairs increased by 50%. Spraying this leaf with benzyl adenine (BA) caused, when averaged across salinities and surfaces, a 32% increase in the number of microhairs. Salinity reduced leaf area but in all the salinity treatments, spraying with BA increased the total number of microhairs per leaf. Washing leaves of plants provided estimates of the loss of salt from those leaves. There were large differences between the Na:K molar ratios in the washing solution and the leaf tissue, indicating a high selectivity for sodium over potassium for loss from the leaf. BA did not influence the efficiency of salt loss, expressed per microhair, at any salinity level, but did increase loss per leaf. Thus, BA increased salt loss from plants due to its influence on the number of microhairs and leaf area, but not due to its effect on the efficiency of the secretion process per se.     

Anatomical changes induced by increasing NaCl salinity in three fodder shrubs, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nitraria retusa</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Atriplex halimus</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Medicago arborea</Emphasis>

Nitraria retusa and Atriplex halimus (xero-halophytes) plants were grown in the range 0–800 mM NaCl while Medicago arborea (glycophyte) in 0–300 mM NaCl. Plants were harvested after 120 days of salt-treatment. The present study was designed to study the effect of salinity on root, stem and leaf anatomy, water relationship, and plant growth in greenhouse conditions. Salinity induced anatomical changes in the roots, stems and leaves. The cuticle and epidermis of N. retusa and A. halimus stems were unaffected by salinity. However, root anatomical parameters (root cross section area, cortex thickness and stele to root area ratio), and stem anatomical parameters (stem cross section area and cortex area) were promoted at 100–200 mM NaCl. Indicating that low to moderate salinity had a stimulating effect on root and stem growth of these xero-halophytic species. At higher salinities, root and stem structures were altered significantly, and their percentages of reduction were higher in A. halimus than in N. retusa whereas, in M. arborea, they were strongly altered as salinity rose. NaCl (100–300 mM) reduced leaf water content by 21.2–56.2% and specific leaf area by 51–88.1%, while increased leaf anatomical parameters in M. arborea (e.g. increased thickness of upper and lower epidermis, palisade and spongy mesophyll, entire lamina, and increased palisade to spongy mesophyll ratio). Similar results were evidenced in A. halimus leaves with salinity exceeding 100 mM NaCl. Leaves of N. retusa were thinner in salt-stressed plants while epidermis thickness and water content was unaffected by salinity. The size of xylem vessel was unchanged under salinity in the leaf’s main vein of the three species while we have increased number in M. arborea leaf main vein in the range of 200–300 mM NaCl. A longer distance between leaf vascular bundle, a reduced size and increased number of xylem vessel especially in stem than in root vascular system was evidenced in M. arborea treated plants and only at (400–800 mM) in the xero-halophytic species. The effects of NaCl toxicity on leaf, stem and root ultrastructure are discussed in relation to the degree of salt resistance of these three species. Our results suggest that both N. retusa and A. halimus show high tolerance to salinity while M. arborea was considered as a salt tolerant species.     

Salt tolerance of the annual halophyte <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cakile maritima</Emphasis> as affected by the provenance and the developmental stage

Though halophytes are naturally adapted to salinity, their salt-tolerance limits are greatly influenced by their provenance and developmental stage. In the present study, physio-biochemical responses of two Tunisian ecotypes of the oilseed coastal halophyte Cakile maritima (Brassicaceae) to salinity (0–400 mM NaCl) were monitored during germination and vegetative growth stages. Tabarka and Jerba seeds were collected from humid or arid climatic areas, respectively. Plant response to salinity appeared to depend on the ecotype and salinity levels. Increasing salinity inhibited germination process. Jerba seeds were found to be more salt tolerant than the Tabarka ones. At the autotrophic stage of growth and under salt-free conditions, Jerba was less productive than Tabarka (in terms of dry matter accumulation), but plant biomass production and leaf expansion (area and number) of the former ecotype were progressively improved by 100 mM NaCl, as compared to the control. In contrast, at the same salt concentration, these parameters decreased under increasing salinity in Tabarka (salt sensitive). Leaf chlorophyll content was reduced at severe salinity, but this effect was more conspicuous in the sensitive Tabarka plants. Na⁺ contents in the Jerba and Tabarka leaves collected from the 400 mM NaCl-treated plants were 17- and 12-fold higher than in the respective controls. This effect was accompanied by a significant reduction in the leaf K⁺, Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺ contents, especially in the salt-treated Tabarka. A significant accumulation of proline and soluble carbohydrates in leaves was found during the period of intensive leaf growth. These organic compounds likely play a role in leaf osmotic adjustment and in protection of membrane stability at severe salinity.     

Sodium,potassium, chloride and proline concentrations of chloroplasts isolated from a halophyte,Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L.

Concentrations of four major solutes (Na⁺, K⁺, Cl^-, proline) were determined in isolated, intact chloroplasts from the halophyte Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L. following long-term exposure of plants to three levels of NaCl salinity in the rooting medium. Chloroplasts were obtained by gentle rupture of leaf protoplasts. There was either no or only small leakage of inorganic ions from the chloroplasts to the medium during three rapidly performed washing steps involving precipitation and re-suspension of chloroplast pellets. Increasing NaCl salinity of the rooting medium resulted in a rise of Na⁺ und Cl^- in the total leaf sap, up to approximately 500 and 400 mM, respectively, for plants grown at 400 mM NaCl. However, chloroplast levels of Na⁺ und Cl^- did not exceed 160–230 and 40–60 mM, respectively, based upon a chloroplast osmotic volume of 20–30 l per mg chlorophyll. At 20 mM NaCl in the rooting medium, the Na⁺/K⁺ ratio of the chloroplasts was about 1; at 400 mM NaCl the ratio was about 5. Growth at 400 mM NaCl led to markedly increased concentrations of proline in the leaf sap (8 mM) compared with the leaf sap of plants grown in culture solution without added NaCl (proline 0.25 mM). Although proline was fivefold more concentrated in the chloroplasts than in the total leaf sap of plants treated with 400 mM NaCl, the overall contribution of proline to the osmotic adjustment of chloroplasts was small. The capacity to limit chloroplast Cl^- concentrations under conditions of high external salinity was in contrast to an apparent affinity of chloroplasts for Cl^- under conditions of low Cl^- availability.Abbreviation Chl chlorophyll     

Effects of Salinity on the Extensibility and Ca Availability in the Expanding Region of Growing Barley Leaves

The growth of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) leaves is reduced by salinity. We used the Instron extensometric technique to measure the reversible and irreversible compliance of the expanding regions of growing barley leaves from plants exposed to 1, 40, 80 and 120 mM NaCl in nutrient solution. Two barley cultivars differing in salinity resistance (cv ‘Arivat’ and cv ‘Briggs’) were compared over 5d of leaf growth. During the period of most active leaf expansion, salinity reduced reversible compliance and increased compliance in the leaf segments, although responses to salinity were complex and changed over the course of leaf expansion. Salinity increased irreversible compliance more in the salt-sensitive cultivar Arivat than in the more salt-tolerant cultivar Briggs. Elemental analysis of the basal leaf segments used for extensometry revealed an accumulation of Na and a depletion of Ca in segments from salinized plants, resulting in very high Na: Ca ratios in salinized expanding tissue. The concentrations of K and Mg in basal leaf tissue were elevated by salinity. Our data do support the hypothesis that the inhibition of leaf expansion by salinity stress is mediated by a decline in irreversible extensibility. We suggest that reduced Ca availability in expanding leaf tissue may contribute to growth reduction in salt-stressed barley seedlings.     

Salinity-induced changes in essential oil,pigments and salts accumulation in sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) in relation to alterations of morphological development

The objective of the project was to study salinity-induced effects on essential oil, pigments and salts accumulation in sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum, the cultivar Perrie) in relation to the alteration of plant morphological development and yield production. Hydroponically grown plants were exposed to one of six NaCl concentrations (1, 25, 50, 75, 100 and 130 mM NaCl). Inhibitory effects of salinity on biomass production of the shoot and the root, and area of individual leaves were apparent already under cultivation with 25 mM NaCl. Elevation of salinity from 1 to 100 mM NaCl induced 63% and 61% reductions in fresh and dry herb biomass production, respectively. The stress-induced reduction of foliage biomass sourced mainly from inhibition of leaf area development rather than reduction of internode and leaf number. Cl and Na concentrations in the leaves, stems and roots increased with elevation of NaCl concentration in the cultivation solution. While the extent of Cl accumulation was leaves>stems>roots, Na was largely excluded from the leaves and was preferentially accumulated in roots and the stems, potentially accounting for the moderate sensitivity of the leaf tissue to salinity. Salt stress increased the contents of essential oil and carotenoids in the leaves that may further account for the moderate sensitivity of sweet basil to salinity and suggest a potential for agro-industrial production. A twofold increase in both carotenoid concentration and the percent of essential oil in the fresh tissue was observed by elevation of the salinity from 1 to 130 mM NaCl. Overall, the stress induced increase of the percent of essential oil in the tissue in the salinity range 1–75 mM NaCl was about 50%, and thereby compensated for the similar reduction of biomass production in this salinity range, so that oil production on per plant basis was not reduced by salinity.     

Effect of Salinity on the Composition, Number and Size of Epidermal Cells along the Mature Blade of Wheat Leaves

Salinity inhibits leaf growth in association with changes in cell size. The objective of this study was to determine the spatial distributions of the composition, number and dimensions of epidermal cells in the mature blades of leaf four of wheat seedlings under saline conditions. Plants were grown in loamy soil either with or without 120 mmol/L NaCl in a growth chamber, and harvested after leaf four was fully developed. The results of the spatial distribution analyses of width along the blade showed that salinity not only reduced the width of the leaf blade, but that it also altered the distribution pattern of blade width along the leaf axis. The reduction in the final size of the leaf blade was associated with a reduction in the total number of epidermal cells and in their widths and lengths. This study also revealed the spatial effects of salinity on the blade and epidermal cell dimensions along the leaf axis. In particular, salinity inhibited the total cell number for interstomatal, sister and elongated cells, implying that cell division in wheat leaves is inhibited by salinity. However, the lengths of interstomatal cells were not affected by salinity （unlike those for the sister and elongated cells）, suggesting the relative contributions of cell length and numbers to the reduction in the final length of the blade under salinity is dependent on cell type.     

Response of Bur and Red oak seedlings to NaCl-induced salinity

Growth performance of Bur oak (Q. macrocarpa Michx.) and Red oak (Q. rubra L.) under salinity conditions was assessed by growing seedlings in the presence of increasing levels of NaCl. Salinity reduced root growth in both species, although its repressive effect was more pronounced in Red oak. Exposure to 75 mM NaCl for 3 weeks almost arrested root growth in Red oak, while it reduced it only by 40 % in Bur oak. Red oak roots showed extensive necrosis and limited branching. Salinity also induced leaf injury, which at a NaCl level of 25 mM was less severe in Bur oak possibly due the higher activity of catalase, superoxide dismutase, and dehydroascorbate reductase enzymes participating in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species. Relative to Red oak, a higher retention of photosynthetic rate was observed in Bur oak grown under saline conditions. Salinity also altered nutrient uptake and accumulation in root and leaf tissue. Compared to Red oak, the content of magnesium and calcium in Bur oak leaves exposed to NaCl remained elevated, while an opposite trend was observed in root tissue. This was in contrast to nitrogen which was not altered by salinity in Bur oak, while it increased in roots of Red oak. The better performance of Bur oak root tissue under salinity conditions was ascribed to structural modifications of the root system with maturation of casparian bands and suberinization occurring closer to the root tip. These structures are known to act as barriers enhancing ion selectivity. Collectively this study demonstrates that relative to Red oak, Bur oak is more tolerant to NaCl-induced salinity conditions.     

Alleviation of salinity stress in broccoli using foliar urea or methyl-jasmonate: analysis of growth,gas exchange,and isotope composition

We studied the effects of foliar application of urea or methyl-jasmonate (MeJA) on the salinity tolerance of broccoli plants (Brassisca oleracea L. var. italica). Plant dry weight, leaf CO₂ assimilation, and root respiration were reduced significantly under moderate saline stress (40 mM NaCl) but application of either urea or MeJA maintained growth, gas exchange parameters, and leaf N–NO₃ ⁻ concentrations at values similar to those of non-salinized plants. Additionally, when these two foliar treatments were applied leaf Na⁺ concentration was reduced compared with control plants grown at 40 mM NaCl. However, at a higher salt concentration (120 mM NaCl), no effect of the foliar applications was found on these parameters. Salinity also decreased leaf δ¹⁵N but increased δ¹³C. Our study shows the feasibility of using foliar urea or MeJA to improve tolerance under moderate saline stress.     

Growth performance and physiological response in the halophyte Lycium barbarum grown at salt-affected soil

As a traditional Chinese medicinal plant, Lyciumbarbarum is of high economic value and has attracted many considerable interests in recent years. The plant is a perennial halophyte grown under extreme conditions, especially under highly saline soil. A pot experiment was carried out to quantify the responses of L. barbarum plants to soil salinity applied at 100 and 200 mM NaCl. The results demonstrate that 100 mM NaCl soil improves the growth of L. barbarum seedlings. Because the 100 mM NaCl soil enhanced plant height and dry matter by 20% and 30% compared with the nonsalinised soil, it is considered suitable, and the 200 mM NaCl soil showed negative effects, too extreme for the growth of L. barbarum. The leaf cations and betaine content increased significantly under salt stress. The leaf chlorophyll, gas exchange, photochemical efficiency, leaf area and soluble sugar contents showed a significant decrease under 200 mM NaCl stress compared with the nonsalinised and the 100 mM NaCl‐affected soil. The results do not provide a basic mechanism for the observed growth stimulation; however, they suggest that L. barbarum may be an economic species for cultivation in moderately saline areas such as northwest China.     

Growth and pigment content of wheat as influenced by the combined effects of salinity and growth regulators

A field experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of presoaking the wheat grains (Triticum aestivum L.) in different levels of salinity (33 or 66 mM) and in growth regulators (indolyl-3-acetic acid, IAA at SO g m^-3, gibberellic acid, GA₃ at 100 g m^-3, or kinetin at 100 g m_-3) on the shoot growth and pigment content of the developing wheat flag leaf. Salinity at 33 or 66 mM led to an insignificant increase in the fresh and dry masses as well as in the shoot diameter and shoot length, but it attenuated the flag leaf area. In the majority of cases, salinity increased the chlorophyll (Chla, Chlb) and carotenoid contents as well as the number of chloroplasts per a mesophyll cell. The growth in the wheat shoot of the saline-treated plants was, in general, stimulated in response to presoaking the grains in kinetin or GA₃. On the other hand, IAA + salinity led to a negligible effect on the growth in the wheat plants particularly at the early stages of growth. The presoaking of grains in NaCl at 33 mM + IAA or 66 mM + kinetin induced a marked increase in the pigment content of the wheat flag leaf particularly at the early stages of growth. The interaction between salinity and phytohormones increased the number of chloroplasts; kinetin was the most effective.     

Changes in photosynthetic pigments and chlorophyll-<Emphasis Type="Italic">a</Emphasis> fluorescence attributes of sweet-forage and grain sorghum cultivars under salt stress

Water shortage leads to a low quality of water, especially saline water in most parts of agricultural regions. This experiment was designed to determine the effects of saline irrigation on sorghum as a moderately salt-tolerant crop. To study salinity effects on photosynthetic pigment attributes including the chlorophyll content and chlorophyll fluorescence, an experiment was performed in a climate-controlled greenhouse at two vegetative and reproductive stages. The experimental design was factorial based on a completely randomized design with five NaCl concentrations (control, 50, 100, 150, and 200 mM), two grain and sweet-forage sorghum cultivars (Kimia and Pegah, respectively) and four replications. According to the experimental data, there were no significant differences between two grain and sweet-forage cultivars. Except for 100 and 150 mM NaCl, salinity significantly decreased the chlorophyll index and pigment contents of the leaf, while it increased the chlorophyll-a fluorescence characteristics. Although salinity reduced photosynthetic pigments and the crop yield, either grain or sweet-forage cultivars could significantly control the effect of salinity between 100 and 150 mM NaCl at both developmental stages, showing the possibility of using saline water in sorghum cultivation up to 150 mM NaCl.     

Does Seed Priming Induce Changes in the Levels of Some Endogenous Plant Hormones in Hexaploid Wheat Plants Under Salt Stress？

In order to assess whether salt tolerance could be Improved In spring wheat （Triticum aestivum L.）, the present study was performed by soaking the seeds of two cultlvars, namely MH-97 （salt sensitive） and Inqlab-91 （salt tolerant）, for 12 h In distilled water or 100 mol/m^3 CaCl2, KCI, or NaCI. Primed seeds from each treatment group and non-primed seeds were sown In a field In which NaCI salinity of 15 dS/m was developed. Priming of seeds with CaCl2, followed by priming with KCI and NaCI, was found to be effective In alleviating the adverse effects of salt stress on both wheat cultivars In terms of shoot fresh and dry weights and grain yield. Priming with CaCl2 alleviated the adverse effects of salt stress on hormonal balance In plants of both cultlvars. In MH-97 plants, CaCl2 pretreatment considerably reduced leaf absclslc acid （ABA） concentrations and Increased leaf free salicylic acid （SA） concentrations under both saline and non-saline conditions. In contrast, In the Inqlab-91 plant, CaCl2 Increased free Indoleacetic acid （IAA） and indolebutyrlc acid （IBA） content. However, priming of seeds with CaCl2 did not alter free polyamlne levels in either cultlvar, although spermldlne levels were considerably lower In plants raised from seeds treated with CaCl2 for both cultlvars under saline conditions. Priming with KCI Increased growth In Inqlab-91 plants, but not In MH-97 plants, under saline conditions. The salinity Induced reducUon In auxins （IAA and IBA） was alleviated by NaCI priming In both cultlvars under saline conditions. However, NaCI Increased leaf free ABA content and lowered leaf SA and putresclne levels In Inqlab-91 plants under saline conditions. In conclusion, although all three priming agents （I.e. CaCl2, KCI, and NaCI） were effective In alleviating the adverse effects of salt stress on wheat plants, their effects on altering the levels of different plant hormones were different In the two cuItlvars.     

Photosynthetic Parameters at the Vegetative Stage and during Grain Development of Two Hexaploid Wheat Cultivars Differing in Salt Tolerance

Response of two spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars, salt tolerant SARC-I and salt sensitive Potohar, to different concentrations of NaCl was examined under glasshouse conditions. Eighteen-day-old plants of both the lines grown in sand culture were irrigated with 0 (control), 80, 160 or 240 mM NaCl in full strength Hoagland's nutrient solution. Shoot fresh and dry masses, and leaf area per plant of SARC-I at the vegetative stage, were significantly greater than those of cv. Potohar at higher salt concentrations, however, relative growth rate (RGR) of cv. Potohar was significantly higher than that of SARC-I. SARC-I had higher net photosynthetic rate (P_N), stomatal conductance (g_s) and transpiration rate (E) than cv. Potohar at the vegetative stage, but the cultivars did not differ significantly in water-use efficiency (P_N/E), intrinsic water use efficiency (P_N/g_s), and intercellular/ambient CO₂ concentration ratio. At the grain development stage, SARC-I had significantly higher P_N and g_s in the flag leaf than cv. Potohar under salinity. SARC-I was superior to cv. Potohar with respect to number of grains per spike, number of grains per spikelet, mean grain mass, and grain yield per plant at all NaCl concentrations.     

Does exogenous application of salicylic acid through the rooting medium modulate growth and photosynthetic capacity in two differently adapted spring wheat cultivars under salt stress?

In order to assess whether exogenous application of salicylic acid (SA) through the rooting medium could modulate the photosynthetic capacity of two wheat cultivars differing in salinity tolerance, a hydroponic experiment was conducted under greenhouse conditions. Seeds of a salt tolerant (S-24) and a moderately salt sensitive (MH-97) cultivar were germinated at 0 or 150 mM NaCl in Hoagland's nutrient solution containing different levels of salicylic acid (SA) (0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 and 1.00 mM) for 7d. Seven-day old wheat seedlings were transferred to hydroponics and grown at 0, or 150 mM NaCl for for further 30 d. Different levels of salicylic acid (SA) were also maintained in the solution culture. After 30 d, four plants out of six were harvested and the remaining plants were left for the estimation of yield attributes Salt stress reduced the growth and grain yield of both cultivars. However, cv. S-24 performed better than MH-97 under salt stress with respect to leaf area, and grain yield. Exogenous application of SA promoted growth and yield, and counteracted the salt stress-induced growth inhibition of salt tolerant S-24, whereas for MH-97 there was no improvement in growth or grain yield with SA application. Of the varying SA levels used, the most effective levels for promoting growth and grain yield were 0.75 and 0.25 mM under normal and saline conditions, respectively. The improvement in growth and grain yield of S-24 due to SA application was associated with improved photosynthetic capacity. Changes in photosynthetic rate due to SA application were not due to stomatal limitations, but were associated with metabolic factors, other than photosynthetic pigments and leaf carotenoids.     

Tolerance of mannitol-accumulating transgenic wheat to water stress and salinity

Previous work with model transgenic plants has demonstrated that cellular accumulation of mannitol can alleviate abiotic stress. Here, we show that ectopic expression of the mtlD gene for the biosynthesis of mannitol in wheat improves tolerance to water stress and salinity. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv Bobwhite) was transformed with the mtlD gene of Escherichia coli. Tolerance to water stress and salinity was evaluated using calli and T(2) plants transformed with (+mtlD) or without (-mtlD) mtlD. Calli were exposed to -1.0 MPa of polyethylene glycol 8,000 or 100 mM NaCl. T(2) plants were stressed by withholding water or by adding 150 mM NaCl to the nutrient medium. Fresh weight of -mtlD calli was reduced by 40% in the presence of polyethylene glycol and 37% under NaCl stress. Growth of +mtlD calli was not affected by stress. In -mtlD plants, fresh weight, dry weight, plant height, and flag leaf length were reduced by 70%, 56%, 40%, and 45% compared with 40%, 8%, 18%, and 29%, respectively, in +mtlD plants. Salt stress reduced shoot fresh weight, dry weight, plant height, and flag leaf length by 77%, 73%, 25%, and 36% in -mtlD plants, respectively, compared with 50%, 30%, 12%, and 20% in +mtlD plants. However, the amount of mannitol accumulated in the callus and mature fifth leaf (1.7-3.7 micromol g(-1) fresh weight in the callus and 0.6-2.0 micromol g(-1) fresh weight in the leaf) was too small to protect against stress through osmotic adjustment. We conclude that the improved growth performance of mannitol-accumulating calli and mature leaves was due to other stress-protective functions of mannitol, although this study cannot rule out possible osmotic effects in growing regions of the plant.     

Participation of Plant Hormones in Growth Resumption of Wheat Shoots Following Short-Term NaCl Treatment

The effects of sodium-chloride salinity on the leaf elongation rate, transpiration rate, cell sap osmolality, and phytohormone content in 7-day-old shoots of durum wheat (Triticum durum L.) were studied. Leaf growth was suppressed under the salinity stress and resumed 1 h after NaCl removal. The resumption of leaf growth coincided with a decrease in the transpiration rate due to the rapid ABA accumulation in the differentiation leaf zone. The increased IAA concentration in the growing leaf zone promoted the formation of the attraction signal. The authors concluded that the changes in phytohormonal status in wheat plants occurred already following short-term (up to 1 h) salinity and were directed to the maintenance of plant growth under these conditions.     

Alleviation of salt stress by plant growth regulators and IAA producing bacteria in wheat

The action of phytohormone producing bacteria and plant growth regulators on germination and seedling growth of wheat under saline conditions were studied. Seed dormancy enforced by salinity (100 mM NaCl) was substantially alleviated and the germination was promoted by gibberellin, auxin, zeatin, and ethephon from 54 to 97%. The IAA producing bacterial strains Pseudomonas aureantiaca TSAU22, Pseudomonas extremorientalis TSAU6 and Pseudomonas extremorientalis TSAU20 significantly increased seedling root growth up to 25% in non-salinated conditions and up to 52% at 100 mM NaCl, compared to control plants. It is concluded that growth regulators considerably alleviated salinity-induced dormancy of wheat seeds. The facts mentioned above make it possible to recommend root colonizing bacteria that produce phytohormone to alleviate salt stress of wheat grown under conditions of soil salinity.     

Leaf vasculature in Zea mays L.

The vascular system of the Zea mays L. leaf consists of longitudinal strands interconnected by transverse bundles. In any given transverse section the longitudinal strands may be divided into three types of bundle according to size and structure: small, intermediate, large. Virtually all of the longitudinal strands intergrade structurally however, from one bundle type to another as they descend the leaf. For example, all of the strands having large-bundle anatomy appear distally as small bundles, which intergrade into intermediates and then large bundles as they descend the leaf. Only the large bundles and the intermediates that arise midway between them extend basipetally into the sheath and stem. Most of the remaining longitudinal strands of the blade do not enter the sheath but fuse with other strands above and in the region of the blade joint. Despite the marked decrease in number of longitudinal bundles at the base of the blade, both the total and mean cross-sectional areas of sieve tubes and tracheary elements increase as the bundles continuing into the sheath increase in size. Linear relationships exist between leaf width and total bundle number, and between cross-sectional area of vascular bundles and both total and mean cross-sectional areas of sieve tubes and tracheary elements.