Conversion of hardwood forests to spruce and pine plantations strongly reduced soil methane sink in Germany

Well‐drained forest soils are thought to be a significant sink for atmospheric methane. Recent research suggests that land use change reduces the soil methane sink by diminishing populations of methane oxidizing bacteria. Here we report soil CH₄ uptake from ‘natural’ mature beech forests and from mature pine and spruce plantations in two study areas of Germany with distinct climate and soils. The CH₄ uptake rates of both beech forests at Solling and Unterlüß were about two–three times the CH₄ uptake rates of the adjacent pine and spruce plantations, indicating a strong impact of forest type on the soil CH₄ sink. The CH₄ uptake rates of sieved mineral soils from our study sites confirmed the tree species effect and indicate that methanotrophs were mainly reduced in the 0–5 cm mineral soil depth. The reasons for the reduction are still unknown. We found no site effect between Solling and Unterlüß, however, CH₄ uptake rates from Solling were significantly higher at the same effective CH₄ diffusivity. This potential site effect was masked by higher soil water contents at Solling. Soil pH (H₂O) explained 71% of the variation in CH₄ uptake rates of sieved mineral soils from the 0–5 cm depth, while cation exchange capacity, soil organic carbon, soil nitrogen and total phosphorous content were not correlated with CH₄ uptake rates. Comparing 1998–99, annual CH₄ uptake rates increased by 69–111% in the beech and spruce stands and by 5–25% in the pine stands, due primarily to differences in growing season soil moisture. Cumulative CH₄ uptake rates from November throughout April were rather constant in both years. The CH₄ uptake rates of each stand were separately predicted using daily average soil matric potential and a previously developed empirical model. The model results revealed that soil matric potential explains 53–87% of the temporal variation in CH₄ uptake. The differences between measured and predicted annual CH₄ uptake rates were less than 10%, except for the spruce stand at Solling in 1998 (17%). Based on data from this study and from the literature, we calculated a total reduction in the soil CH₄ sink of 31% for German forests due in part to conversion of deciduous to coniferous forests.     

Control of Nitrous Oxide Emissions in European Beech,Norway Spruce and Scots Pine Forests

Elevated nitrogen deposition has increased tree growth, the storage of soil organic matter, and nitrate leaching in many European forests, but little is known about the effect of tree species and nitrogen deposition on nitrous oxide emission. Here we report soil N₂O emission from European beech, Scots pine and Norway spruce forests in two study areas of Germany with distinct climate, N deposition and soils. N₂O emissions and throughfall input of nitrate and ammonium were measured biweekly during growing season and monthly during dormant season over a 28 months period. Annual N₂O emission rates ranged between 0.4 and 1.3 kg N ha^?1 year^?1 among the stands and were higher in 1998 than in 1999 due to higher precipitation during the growing season of 1998. A 2-way-ANOVA revealed that N₂O fluxes were significantly higher (p<0.001) at Solling than at Unterlüß while tree species had no effect on N₂O emissions. Soil texture and the amount of throughfall explained together 94% of the variance among the stands, indicating that increasing portions of silt and clay may promote the formation of N₂O in wet forest soils. Moreover, cumulative N₂O fluxes were significantly correlated (r² = 0.60, p<0.001) with cumulative NO ₃ ^? fluxes at 10 cm depth as an indicator of N saturation, however, the slope of the regression curve indicates a rather weak effect of NO ₃ ^? fluxes on N₂O emissions. N input by throughfall was not correlated with N₂O emissions and only 1.6–3.2% of N input was released as N₂O to the atmosphere. Our results suggest that elevated N inputs have little effect on N₂O emissions in beech, spruce and pine forests.     

Winter soil frost conditions in boreal forests control growing season soil CO2 concentration and its atmospheric exchange

The impact of changes in winter soil frost regime on soil CO₂ concentration and its atmospheric exchange in a boreal Norway spruce forest was investigated using a field‐scale soil frost manipulation experiment. The experiment comprised three treatments: deep soil frost, shallow soil frost and control plots (n= 3). Winter soil temperatures and soil frost distribution were significantly altered by the different treatments. The average soil CO₂ concentrations during the growing season were significantly lower in plots with deep soil frost than in plots with shallow soil frost. The average CO₂ soil–atmosphere exchange rate exhibited the same pattern, and differences in soil respiration rates among the treatments were statistically significant. Both the variation in soil CO₂ concentration and the CO₂ soil–atmosphere exchange rate could statistically be explained by the differences in the maximum soil frost depth during the previous winter. A response model for growing season soil respiration rates suggests that every 1 cm change in winter soil frost depth will change the emission rates by ca. 0.01 g CO₂ m^?2 day^?1, corresponding to 0.2–0.5% of the estimated net ecosystem productivity (NEP). This suggests that the soil frost regime has a significant influence on the C balance of the system, because interannual variations in soil frost up to 60 cm have been recorded at the site. We conclude that winter climate conditions can be important in controlling C balances in northern terrestrial ecosystems, and also that indirect effects of the winter season must be taken into account, because these can affect the prevailing conditions during the growing season.     

Soil respiration in a Mediterranean oak forest at different developmental stages after coppicing

To assess the variation of soil respiration at different forest stages we measured it in a coppiced oak (Quercus cerris L.) chronosequence in central Italy during two campaigns, spanning 2 successive years, in four stands at different stages of the rotation: 1 year (S1), 5 years (S5), 10 years (S10) and 17 years (S17) after coppicing. The contribution of the different components of soil respiration flux (aboveground litter, belowground decomposition soil organic matter and root respiration) was estimated by a paired comparison of manipulative experiments between the recently coppiced stand (S1) and mature stand (S17). Ninety percent of soil respiration values were between 1.7 and 7.8 μmol m^?2 s^?1, with an overall mean (±SD) of 4.0±2.7 μmol m^?2 s^?1. Spatial variation of soil respiration was high (CV=44.9%), with a mean range (i.e. patch size) of 4.8±2.7 m, as estimated from a semivariance analysis. In the absence of limitation by soil moisture, soil respiration was related to soil temperature with the exponential Q₁₀ model (average Q₁₀=2.25). During summer, soil moisture constrained soil respiration and masked its dependence on soil temperature. Soil respiration declined over the years after coppicing. Assuming a linear decline with stand age, we estimated a reduction of 24% over a 20‐year‐rotation cycle. The response of soil respiration to temperature also changed with age of the stands: the Q₁₀ was estimated to decrease from 2.90 in S1 to 2.42 in S17, suggesting that different components or processes may be involved at different developmental stages. The contribution of heterotrophic respiration to total soil respiration flux was relatively larger in the young S1 stand than in the mature S17 stand.     

Annual variation in soil respiration and its components in a coppice oak forest in Central Italy

In order to investigate the annual variation of soil respiration and its components in relation to seasonal changes in soil temperature and soil moisture in a Mediterranean mixed oak forest ecosystem, we set up a series of experimental treatments in May 1999 where litter (no litter), roots (no roots, by trenching) or both were excluded from plots of 4 m². Subsequently, we measured soil respiration, soil temperature and soil moisture in each plot over a year after the forest was coppiced. The treatments did not significantly affect soil temperature or soil moisture measured over 0–10 cm depth. Soil respiration varied markedly during the year with high rates in spring and autumn and low rates in summer, coinciding with summer drought, and in winter, with the lowest temperatures. Very high respiration rates, however, were observed during the summer immediately after rainfall events. The mean annual rate of soil respiration was 2.9 µ mol m^?2 s^?1, ranging from 1.35 to 7.03 µmol m^?2 s^?1. Soil respiration was highly correlated with temperature during winter and during spring and autumn whenever volumetric soil water content was above 20%. Below this threshold value, there was no correlation between soil respiration and soil temperature, but soil moisture was a good predictor of soil respiration. A simple empirical model that predicted soil respiration during the year, using both soil temperature and soil moisture accounted for more than 91% of the observed annual variation in soil respiration. All the components of soil respiration followed a similar seasonal trend and were affected by summer drought. The Q₁₀ value for soil respiration was 2.32, which is in agreement with other studies in forest ecosystems. However, we found a Q₁₀ value for root respiration of 2.20, which is lower than recent values reported for forest sites. The fact that the seasonal variation in root growth with temperature in Mediterranean ecosystems differs from that in temperate regions may explain this difference. In temperate regions, increases in size of root populations during the growing season, coinciding with high temperatures, may yield higher apparent Q₁₀ values than in Mediterranean regions where root growth is suppressed by summer drought. The decomposition of organic matter and belowground litter were the major components of soil respiration, accounting for almost 55% of the total soil respiration flux. This proportion is higher than has been reported for mature boreal and temperate forest and is probably the result of a short‐term C loss following recent logging at the site. The relationship proposed for soil respiration with soil temperature and soil moisture is useful for understanding and predicting potential changes in Mediterranean forest ecosystems in response to forest management and climate change.     

Topographic and climatic controls on soil respiration in six temperate mixed-hardwood forest slopes, Korea

To better understand the effects of local topography and climate on soil respiration, we conducted field measurements and soil incubation experiments to investigate various factors influencing spatial and temporal variations in soil respiration for six mixed‐hardwood forest slopes in the midst of the Korean Peninsula. Soil respiration and soil water content (SWC) were significantly greater (P=0.09 and 0.003, respectively) on north‐facing slopes compared to south‐facing slopes, while soil temperature was not significantly different between slopes (P>0.5). At all sites, soil temperature was the primary factor driving temporal variations in soil respiration (r²=0.84–0.96) followed by SWC, which accounted for 30% of soil respiration spatial and temporal variability. Results from both field measurements and incubation experiments indicate that variations in soil respiration due to aspect can be explained by a convex‐shaped function relating SWC to normalized soil respiration rates. Annual soil respiration estimates (1070–1246 g C m^?2 yr^?1) were not closely related to mean annual air temperatures among sites from different climate regimes. When soils from each site were incubated at similar temperatures in a laboratory, respiration rates for mineral soils from wetter and cooler sites were significantly higher than those for the drier and warmer sites (n=4, P<0.01). Our results indicate that the application of standard temperature‐based Q₁₀ models to estimate soil respiration rates for larger geographic areas covering different aspects or climatic regimes are not adequate unless other factors, such as SWC and total soil nitrogen, are considered in addition to soil temperature.     

帽儿山不同年龄森林土壤呼吸速率的影响因子

为探明东北温带森林恢复过程中土壤呼吸(R_S)的变化趋势及其影响因子,在帽儿山选取皆伐后天然更新恢复的4个年龄(1a、10a、25a和56a)林分进行了1年的野外原位测定。结果表明:(1)皆伐后天然更新恢复1年、10年、25年和56年林分的年R_S通量差异显著(P0.05),分别为686.5、639.7、733.3、762.3g C m~(-2)a~(-1);其中生长季(5月─10月)和非生长季的R_S通量也存在显著差异,均呈现出随林龄增加先减后增的趋势。全年、生长季和非生长季R_S随林龄变化的变异系数分别为7.6%、6.3%和21.1%,表明非生长季R_S通量的变异性加大了全年R_S通量的差异。(2)4个年龄林分的Rs季节变化趋势相似,且其主控因子均随季节而变:6月─8月Rs与土壤含水率呈二次函数关系(R~2波动在56%─79%之间),其余时段则与土壤温度呈指数函数关系(R~2波动在85%─93%之间)。(3)不同年龄林分生长季R_S与0─20cm土层有机碳(SOC)密度呈正相关关系(R~2=0.434,P0.05),而非生长季R_S与同期土壤5cm温度呈正相关关系(R~2=0.959,P0.01)。本研究区森林皆伐导致R_S降低,随皆伐后森林恢复R_S不断增加,其主导驱动因子是SOC密度的增加和非生长季土壤温度的变化。     

Microbial physiology and soil CO2 efflux after 9 years of soil warming in a temperate forest – no indications for thermal adaptations

Thermal adaptations of soil microorganisms could mitigate or facilitate global warming effects on soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition and soil CO₂ efflux. We incubated soil from warmed and control subplots of a forest soil warming experiment to assess whether 9 years of soil warming affected the rates and the temperature sensitivity of the soil CO₂ efflux, extracellular enzyme activities, microbial efficiency, and gross N mineralization. Mineral soil (0–10 cm depth) was incubated at temperatures ranging from 3 to 23 °C. No adaptations to long‐term warming were observed regarding the heterotrophic soil CO₂ efflux (R₁₀ warmed: 2.31 ± 0.15 μmol m^?2 s^?1, control: 2.34 ± 0.29 μmol m^?2 s^?1; Q₁₀ warmed: 2.45 ± 0.06, control: 2.45 ± 0.04). Potential enzyme activities increased with incubation temperature, but the temperature sensitivity of the enzymes did not differ between the warmed and the control soils. The ratio of C : N acquiring enzyme activities was significantly higher in the warmed soil. Microbial biomass‐specific respiration rates increased with incubation temperature, but the rates and the temperature sensitivity (Q₁₀ warmed: 2.54 ± 0.23, control 2.75 ± 0.17) did not differ between warmed and control soils. Microbial substrate use efficiency (SUE) declined with increasing incubation temperature in both, warmed and control, soils. SUE and its temperature sensitivity (Q₁₀ warmed: 0.84 ± 0.03, control: 0.88 ± 0.01) did not differ between warmed and control soils either. Gross N mineralization was invariant to incubation temperature and was not affected by long‐term soil warming. Our results indicate that thermal adaptations of the microbial decomposer community are unlikely to occur in C‐rich calcareous temperate forest soils.     

Ammonium,nitrate and dissolved organic nitrogen in seepage water as affected by compost amendment to European beech,Norway spruce,and Scots pine forests

Fertilization of nutrient-depleted and degraded forest soils may be required to sustain utilization of forests. In some European countries, the application of composts may now be an alternative to the application of inorganic fertilizers because commercial compost production has increased and compost quality has been improved. There is, however, concern that compost amendments may cause increased leaching of nitrogen, trace metals and toxic organic compounds to groundwater. The objective of this study was to assess the risk of ammonium (NH₄ ⁺), nitrate (NO₃ ^–) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) leaching following a single compost application to silty and sandy soils in mature beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), pine (Pinus silvestris L.) and spruce (Picea abies Karst.) forests at Solling and Unterlüß in Lower Saxony, Germany. Mature compost from separately collected organic household waste was applied to the soil surface at a rate of 6.3 kg m^–2 in the summer of 1997 and changes in NH₄ ⁺, NO₃ ^– and DON concentrations in throughfall and soil water at 10 and 100 cm soil depths were determined for 32 months. The spruce forests had the highest N inputs by throughfall water and the highest N outputs in both the control and compost plots compared with the pine and beech forests. Overall, the differences in total N outputs at 100 cm soil depth between the control and compost plots ranged between 0.3 and 11.2 g N m^–2 for the entire 32-month period. The major leaching of these amounts occurred during the first 17 months after compost amendments, but there was no significant difference in total N outputs (–0.2 to 1.8 g N m^–2) between the control and compost plots during the remaining 15 months. Most of the mineral soils acted as a significant sink for NO₃ ^– and DON as shown by a reduction of their outputs from 10 to 100 cm depth. Based on these results, we conclude that application of mature compost with high inorganic N contents could diminish the groundwater quality in the first months after the amendments. A partial, moderate application of mature compost with low inorganic N content to nutrient depleted forest soils can minimize the risk of NO₃ ^– leaching.     

Main determinants of forest soil respiration along an elevation/temperature gradient in the Italian Alps

The main determinants of soil respiration were investigated in 11 forest types distributed along an altitudinal and thermal gradient in the southern Italian Alps (altitudinal range 1520 m, range in mean annual temperature 7.8°C). Soil respiration, soil carbon content and principal stand characteristics were measured with standardized methods. Soil CO₂ fluxes were measured at each site every 15–20 days with a closed dynamic system (LI‐COR 6400) using soil collars from spring 2000 to spring 2002. At the same time, soil temperature at a depth of 10 cm and soil water content (m³ m^?3) were measured at each collar. Soil samples were collected to a depth of 30 cm and stones, root content and bulk density were determined in order to obtain reliable estimates of carbon content per unit area (kg C m^?2). Soil respiration and temperature data were fitted with a simple logistic model separately for each site, so that base respiration rates and mean annual soil respiration were estimated. Then the same regression model was applied to all sites simultaneously, with each model parameter being expressed as a linear function of site variables. The general model explained about 86% of the intersite variability of soil respiration. In particular, soil mean annual temperature explained the most of the variance of the model (0.41), followed by soil temperature interquartlile range (0.24), soil carbon content (0.16) and soil water content (0.05).     

Carbon storage and fluxes in ponderosa pine forests at different developmental stages

We compared carbon storage and fluxes in young and old ponderosa pine stands in Oregon, including plant and soil storage, net primary productivity, respiration fluxes, eddy flux estimates of net ecosystem exchange (NEE), and Biome‐BGC simulations of fluxes. The young forest (Y site) was previously an old‐growth ponderosa pine forest that had been clearcut in 1978, and the old forest (O site), which has never been logged, consists of two primary age classes (50 and 250 years old). Total ecosystem carbon content (vegetation, detritus and soil) of the O forest was about twice that of the Y site (21 vs. 10 kg C m^?2 ground), and significantly more of the total is stored in living vegetation at the O site (61% vs. 15%). Ecosystem respiration (R_e) was higher at the O site (1014 vs. 835 g C m^?2 year^?1), and it was largely from soils at both sites (77% of R_e). The biological data show that above‐ground net primary productivity (ANPP), NPP and net ecosystem production (NEP) were greater at the O site than the Y site. Monte Carlo estimates of NEP show that the young site is a source of CO₂ to the atmosphere, and is significantly lower than NEP(O) by c. 100 g C m^?2 year^?1. Eddy covariance measurements also show that the O site was a stronger sink for CO₂ than the Y site. Across a 15‐km swath in the region, ANPP ranged from 76 g C m^?2 year^?1 at the Y site to 236 g C m^?2 year^?1 (overall mean 158 ± 14 g C m^?2 year^?1). The lowest ANPP values were for the youngest and oldest stands, but there was a large range of ANPP for mature stands. Carbon, water and nitrogen cycle simulations with the Biome‐BGC model suggest that disturbance type and frequency, time since disturbance, age‐dependent changes in below‐ground allocation, and increasing atmospheric concentration of CO₂ all exert significant control on the net ecosystem exchange of carbon at the two sites. Model estimates of major carbon flux components agree with budget‐based observations to within ± 20%, with larger differences for NEP and for several storage terms. Simulations showed the period of regrowth required to replace carbon lost during and after a stand‐replacing fire (O) or a clearcut (Y) to be between 50 and 100 years. In both cases, simulations showed a shift from net carbon source to net sink (on an annual basis) 10–20 years after disturbance. These results suggest that the net ecosystem production of young stands may be low because heterotrophic respiration, particularly from soils, is higher than the NPP of the regrowth. The amount of carbon stored in long‐term pools (biomass and soils) in addition to short‐term fluxes has important implications for management of forests in the Pacific North‐west for carbon sequestration.     

Fine root dynamics and trace gas fluxes in two lowland tropical forest soils

Fine root dynamics have the potential to contribute significantly to ecosystem‐scale biogeochemical cycling, including the production and emission of greenhouse gases. This is particularly true in tropical forests which are often characterized as having large fine root biomass and rapid rates of root production and decomposition. We examined patterns in fine root dynamics on two soil types in a lowland moist Amazonian forest, and determined the effect of root decay on rates of C and N trace gas fluxes. Root production averaged 229 (±35) and 153 (±27) g m^?2 yr^?1 for years 1 and 2 of the study, respectively, and did not vary significantly with soil texture. Root decay was sensitive to soil texture with faster rates in the clay soil (k=?0.96 year^?1) than in the sandy loam soil (k=?0.61 year^?1), leading to greater standing stocks of dead roots in the sandy loam. Rates of nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions were significantly greater in the clay soil (13±1 ng N cm^?2 h^?1) than in the sandy loam (1.4±0.2 ng N cm^?2 h^?1). Root mortality and decay following trenching doubled rates of N₂O emissions in the clay and tripled them in sandy loam over a 1‐year period. Trenching also increased nitric oxide fluxes, which were greater in the sandy loam than in the clay. We used trenching (clay only) and a mass balance approach to estimate the root contribution to soil respiration. In clay soil root respiration was 264–380 g C m^?2 yr^?1, accounting for 24% to 35% of the total soil CO₂ efflux. Estimates were similar using both approaches. In sandy loam, root respiration rates were slightly higher and more variable (521±206 g C m² yr^?1) and contributed 35% of the total soil respiration. Our results show that soil heterotrophs strongly dominate soil respiration in this forest, regardless of soil texture. Our results also suggest that fine root mortality and decomposition associated with disturbance and land‐use change can contribute significantly to increased rates of nitrogen trace gas emissions.     

Nitrogen addition reduces soil respiration in a mature tropical forest in southern China

Response of soil respiration (CO₂ emission) to simulated nitrogen (N) deposition in a mature tropical forest in southern China was studied from October 2005 to September 2006. The objective was to test the hypothesis that N addition would reduce soil respiration in N saturated tropical forests. Static chamber and gas chromatography techniques were used to quantify the soil respiration, following four‐levels of N treatments (Control, no N addition; Low‐N, 5 g N m^?2 yr^?1; Medium‐N, 10 g N m^?2 yr^?1; and High‐N, 15 g N m^?2 yr^?1 experimental inputs), which had been applied for 26 months before and continued throughout the respiration measurement period. Results showed that soil respiration exhibited a strong seasonal pattern, with the highest rates found in the warm and wet growing season (April–September) and the lowest rates in the dry dormant season (December–February). Soil respiration rates showed a significant positive exponential relationship with soil temperature, whereas soil moisture only affect soil respiration at dry conditions in the dormant season. Annual accumulative soil respiration was 601±30 g CO₂‐C m^?2 yr^?1 in the Controls. Annual mean soil respiration rate in the Control, Low‐N and Medium‐N treatments (69±3, 72±3 and 63±1 mg CO₂‐C m^?2 h^?1, respectively) did not differ significantly, whereas it was 14% lower in the High‐N treatment (58±3 mg CO₂‐C m^?2 h^?1) compared with the Control treatment, also the temperature sensitivity of respiration, Q₁₀ was reduced from 2.6 in the Control with 2.2 in the High‐N treatment. The decrease in soil respiration occurred in the warm and wet growing season and were correlated with a decrease in soil microbial activities and in fine root biomass in the N‐treated plots. Our results suggest that response of soil respiration to atmospheric N deposition in tropical forests is a decline, but it may vary depending on the rate of N deposition.     

Contrasting soil respiration in young and old-growth ponderosa pine forests

Three years of fully automated and manual measurements of soil CO₂ efflux, soil moisture and temperature were used to explore the diel, seasonal and inter‐annual patterns of soil efflux in an old‐growth (250‐year‐old, O site) and recently regenerating (14‐year‐old, Y site) ponderosa pine forest in central Oregon. The data were used in conjunction with empirical models to determine which variables could be used to predict soil efflux in forests of contrasting ages and disturbance histories. Both stands experienced similar meteorological conditions with moderately cold wet winters and hot dry summers. Soil CO₂ efflux at both sites showed large inter‐annual variability that could be attributed to soil moisture availability in the deeper soil horizons (O site) and the quantity of summer rainfall (Y site). Seasonal patterns of soil CO₂ efflux at the O site showed a strong positive correlation between diel mean soil CO₂ efflux and soil temperature at 64 cm depth whereas diel mean soil efflux at the Y site declined before maximum soil temperature occurred during summer drought. The use of diel mean soil temperature and soil water potential inferred from predawn foliage water potential measurements could account for 80% of the variance of diel mean soil efflux across 3 years at both sites, however, the functional shape of the soil water potential constraint was site‐specific. Based on the similarity of the decomposition rates of litter and fine roots between sites, but greater productivity and amount of fine litter detritus available for decomposition at the O site, we would expect higher rates of soil CO₂ efflux at the O site. However, annual rates were only higher at the O site in one of the 3 years (597 ± 45 vs. 427 ± 80 g C m^?2). Seasonal patterns of soil efflux at both sites showed influences of soil water limitations that were also reflected in patterns of canopy stomatal conductance, suggesting strong linkages between above and below ground processes.     

Estimates of soil respiration and net primary production of three forests at different succession stages in South China

Soil respiration (heterotropic and autotropic respiration, R_g) and aboveground litter fall carbon were measured at three forests at different succession (early, middle and advanced) stages in Dinghushan Biosphere Reserve, Southern China. It was found that the soil respiration increases exponentially with soil temperature at 5 cm depth (T_s) according to the relation R_g=a exp(bT_s), and the more advanced forest community during succession has a higher value of a because of higher litter carbon input than the forests at early or middle succession stages. It was also found that the monthly soil respiration is linearly correlated with the aboveground litter carbon input of the previous month. Using measurements of aboveground litter and soil respiration, the net primary productions (NPPs) of three forests were estimated using nonlinear inversion. They are 475, 678 and 1148 g C m^?2 yr^?1 for the Masson pine forest (MPF), coniferous and broad‐leaf mixed forest (MF) and subtropical monsoon evergreen broad‐leaf forest (MEBF), respectively, in year 2003/2004, of which 54%, 37% and 62% are belowground NPP for those three respective forests if no change in live plant biomass is assumed. After taking account of the decrease in live plant biomass, we estimated the NPP of the subtropical MEBF is 970 g C m^?2 yr^?1 in year 2003/2004. Total amount of carbon allocated below ground for plant roots is 388 g C m^?2 yr^?1 for the MPF, 504 g C m^?2 yr^?1 for the coniferous and broad‐leaf MF and 1254 g C m^?2 yr^?1 for the subtropical MEBF in 2003/2004. Our results support the hypothesis that the amount of carbon allocation belowground increases during forest succession.     

Dynamics of carbon stocks in soils and detritus across chronosequences of different forest types in the Pacific Northwest, USA

We investigated variation in carbon stock in soils and detritus (forest floor and woody debris) in chronosequences that represent the range of forest types in the US Pacific Northwest. Stands range in age from <13 to >600 years. Soil carbon, to a depth of 100 cm, was highest in coastal Sitka spruce/western hemlock forests (36±10 kg C m^?2) and lowest in semiarid ponderosa pine forests (7±10 kg C m^?2). Forests distributed across the Cascade Mountains had intermediate values between 10 and 25 kg C m^?2. Soil carbon stocks were best described as a linear function of net primary productivity (r²=0.52), annual precipitation (r²=0.51), and a power function of forest floor mean residence time (r²=0.67). The highest rates of soil and detritus carbon turnover were recorded on mesic sites of Douglas‐fir/western hemlock forests in the Cascade Mountains with lower rates in wetter and drier habitats, similar to the pattern of site productivity. The relative contribution of soil and detritus carbon to total ecosystem carbon decreased as a negative exponential function of stand age to a value of ～35% between 150 and 200 years across the forest types. These age‐dependent trends in the portioning of carbon between biomass and necromass were not different among forest types. Model estimates of soil carbon storage based on decomposition of legacy carbon and carbon accumulation following stand‐replacing disturbance showed that soil carbon storage reached an asymptote between 150 and 200 years, which has significant implications to modeling carbon dynamics of the temperate coniferous forests following a stand‐replacing disturbance.     

Soil and total ecosystem respiration in agricultural fields: effect of soil and crop type

A study was made of the effect of soil and crop type on the soil and total ecosystem respiration rates in agricultural soils in southern Finland. The main interest was to compare the soil respiration rates in peat and two different mineral soils growing barley, grass and potato. Respiration measurements were conducted during the growing season with (1) a closed-dynamic ecosystem respiration chamber, in which combined plant and soil respiration was measured and (2) a closed-dynamic soil respiration chamber which measured only the soil and root-derived respiration. A semi-empirical model including separate functions for the soil and plant respiration components was used for the total ecosystem respiration (TER), and the resulting soil respiration parameters for different soil and crop types were compared. Both methods showed that the soil respiration in the peat soil was 2–3 times as high as that in the mineral soils, varying from 0.11 to 0.36 mg (CO₂) m^–2 s^–1 in the peat soil and from 0.02 to 0.17 mg (CO₂) m^–2 s^–1 in the mineral soils. The difference between the soil types was mainly attributed to the soil organic C content, which in the uppermost 20 cm of the peat soil was 24 kg m^–2, being about 4 times as high as that in the mineral soils. Depending on the measurement method, the soil respiration in the sandy soil was slightly higher than or similar to that in the clay soil. In each soil type, the soil respiration was highest on the grass plots. Higher soil respiration parameter values (R_s0, describing the soil respiration at a soil temperature of 10°C, and obtained by modelling) were found on the barley than on the potato plots. The difference was explained by the different cultivation history of the plots, as the potato plots had lain fallow during the preceding summer. The total ecosystem respiration followed the seasonal evolution in the leaf area and measured photosynthetic flux rates. The 2–3-fold peat soil respiration term as compared to mineral soil indicates that the cultivated peat soil ecosystem is a strong net CO₂ source.     

塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地冬季土壤呼吸及其驱动因子

利用Li-8150系统测定了塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地冬季(1月)土壤呼吸,分析了环境驱动因子对极端干旱区荒漠生态系统土壤呼吸的影响。结果表明:(1)冬季土壤呼吸日变化呈现出显著的单峰曲线,土壤呼吸速率最大值出现在12:00,为0.0684μmol CO2m-2s-1,凌晨04:00附近出现最小值,为-0.0473μmol CO2m-2s-1;(2)土壤呼吸速率与各层气温,0cm地表温度均存在着极其显著或显著的线性关系,且都具有正相关性;(3)土壤呼吸速率与5cm土壤湿度存在着较为明显的线性关系,该层湿度能够解释土壤呼吸的69.5%;(4)0cm地表温度对土壤呼吸贡献最大,其次是5cm土壤湿度;(5)以0cm地表温度、5cm土壤湿度为变量,通过多元回归分析表明:土壤温度-湿度构成的多变量模型能够解释大于86.9%的土壤呼吸变化情况;(6)研究时段内土壤呼吸速率的平均值是-1.45mg CO2m-2h-1。     

Stand age-related effects on soil respiration in a first rotation Sitka spruce chronosequence in central Ireland

The effect of stand age on soil respiration and its components was studied in a first rotation Sitka spruce chronosequence composed of 10‐, 15‐, 31‐, and 47‐year‐old stands established on wet mineral gley in central Ireland. For each stand age, three forest stands with similar characteristics of soil type and site preparation were used. There were no significant differences in total soil respiration among sites of the same age, except for the case of a 15‐year‐old stand that had lower soil respiration rates due to its higher productivity. Soil respiration initially decreased with stand age, but levelled out in the older stands. The youngest stands had significantly higher respiration rates than more mature sites. Annual soil respiration rates were modelled by means of temperature‐derived functions. The average Q ₁₀ value obtained treating all the stands together was 3.8. Annual soil respiration rates were 991, 686, 556, and 564 g C m^?2 for the 10‐, 15‐, 31‐, and 47‐year‐old stands, respectively. We used the trenching approach to separate soil respiration components. Heterotrophic respiration paralleled soil organic carbon dynamics over the chronosequence, decreasing with stand age to slightly increase in the oldest stand as a result of accumulated aboveground litter and root inputs. Root respiration showed a decreasing trend with stand age, which was explained by a decrease in fine root biomass over the chronosequence, but not by nitrogen concentration of fine roots. The decrease in the relative contribution of autotrophic respiration to total soil CO₂ efflux from 59.3% in the youngest stand to 49.7% in the oldest stand was explained by the higher activity of the root system in younger stands. Our results show that stand age should be considered if simple temperature‐based models to predict annual soil respiration in afforestation sites are to be used.     

Changing sources of soil respiration with time since fire in a boreal forest

Radiocarbon signatures (Δ¹⁴C) of carbon dioxide (CO₂) provide a measure of the age of C being decomposed by microbes or respired by living plants. Over a 2‐year period, we measured Δ¹⁴C of soil respiration and soil CO₂ in boreal forest sites in Canada, which varied primarily in the amount of time since the last stand‐replacing fire. Comparing bulk respiration Δ¹⁴C with Δ¹⁴C of CO₂ evolved in incubations of heterotrophic (decomposing organic horizons) and autotrophic (root and moss) components allowed us to estimate the relative contributions of O horizon decomposition vs. plant sources. Although soil respiration fluxes did not vary greatly, differences in Δ¹⁴C of respired CO₂ indicated marked variation in respiration sources in space and time. The ¹⁴C signature of respired CO₂ respired from O horizon decomposition depended on the age of C substrates. These varied with time since fire, but consistently had Δ¹⁴C greater (averaging ～120‰) than autotrophic respiration. The Δ¹⁴C of autotrophically respired CO₂ in young stands equaled those expected for recent photosynthetic products (70‰ in 2003, 64‰ in 2004). CO₂ respired by black spruce roots in stands >40 years old had Δ¹⁴C up to 30‰ higher than recent photosynthates, indicating a significant contribution of C stored at least several years in plants. Decomposition of O horizon organic matter made up 20% or less of soil respiration in the younger (<40 years since fire) stands, increasing to ～50% in mature stands. This is a minimum for total heterotrophic contribution, since mineral soil CO₂ had Δ¹⁴C close to or less than those we have assigned to autotrophic respiration. Decomposition of old organic matter in mineral soils clearly contributed to soil respiration in younger stands in 2003, a very dry year, when Δ¹⁴C of soil respiration in younger successional stands dropped below those of the atmospheric CO₂.