Plumage phenotypes and mate preferences in Japanese quail 2. sexual imprinting

Mate selection, with emphasis on early social (sexual imprinting) and subsequent long-term social experience, was studied in a randombred population of Japanese quail consisting of wildtype (W), redhead (R) and Albino (A) plumage colors. Early social experiences involved situations where flocks of the various plumage colors were maintained either separately or intermingled.Initial mate preferences were determined from a series of paired choice-tests between plumage phenotypes. Wildtype and redhead females exhibited no preferences, while albino hens preferred albino males. Preferences exhibited by albino males depended on sexual imprinting; those with no other experience preferred albinos and redheads to wildtypes, whereas those raised with other morphs did not distinguish among phenotypes. Redhead and wildtype males while avoiding albino hens, did not distinguish between redhead and wildtype hens.Combinations of the plumage color-social experience flocks (A&R; A&W; R&W) were housed for long-term observations of mate selection. Albino hens mated only albino males. Redhead and wildtype hens having previous experience with albinos mated more frequently with albino males than those lacking such experience. Redhead and wildtype hens showed no preference between redhead and wildtype males. Albino males did not distinguish among female plumage colors, whereas redhead and wildtype males avoided albino hens, and mated equally with redhead and wildtype hens. In a series of nonsimultaneous choice trials, redhead and wildtype females were mated significantly more than albinos. These results demonstrate the influence of genetic mechanisms, sexual imprinting and subsequent long-term social experiences on the optimization of mate selection.     

Effects of mating system in Japanese quail

Summary A 17-generation selection experiment was conducted to study direct and correlated responses to mass selection under a mating system with alternating generations of full-sib inbreeding and wide outbreeding (population I) as compared with a mass selected, randomly mated population (population II). The selection criterion was an index of total egg mass to 78 days divided by adult female body weight. Estimates of heritabilities and genetic correlations are reported. Estimated heritabilities for the index were 0.38±0.04 and 0.29±0.05 in population I and II, respectively. Realized heritabilites were 0.10±0.05 and 0.12±0.03. For most traits studied the mean phenotypic values in the cyclic mated population decreased for inbred generations. Increased inbreeding levels also caused outbred generation means of population I to decrease through the first six or seven generations. After this period of adaptation to inbreeding selection response was positive for the index and positively correlated traits. Total response to selection under the cyclic inbred-outbred mating system did not exceed selection response made under random mating. However, the rate of response in the cyclically mated population exceeded that in the randomly mated population in later generations when the cyclically mated population had apparently adapted to inbreeding.Published with approval of the Director of the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station, Journal Series No. 1221     

Daily patterns of courtship and mating behavior in the male Japanese quail

Crowing behavior was monitored constantly in male Japanese quail housed singly over 30 successive days. The photoperiod was 16h of light and 8 h of dark. A daily pattern in crowing was observed in which the frequencies were elevated in the afternoon and at the beginning of darkness. However, peak crowing occured 2 h prior to the onset of light. These rhythms were highly correlated among individuals and extremely repeatable over the sequential days of observation.In a second experiment, males which were paired with females were observed for frequencies of crowing, courtship, and mating behavior during the lighted portion of the day. In this experiment, the same photoperiod (16L:8D) was maintained. Paired males exhibited a daily pattern in crowing similar to that observed in the singly housed males. The frequency of mating was the highest between 1200 and 1300 h and lowest at 1400 h. Mating success was highest at midday, as were the number of males exhibiting mating behavior. These diurnal patterns in sexual behavior may depend on environmental cues such as photoperiod, which, in turn, may stimulate endocrine triggers.     

Plumage colour mutations and melanins in the feathers of the Japanese quail: a first comparison

The absorbance of melanin content from dorsal feathers was compared between wild-type Japanese quail and nine other quail plumage colours determined by single mutations in one of seven genes: extended brown ( MC1R ), yellow ( ASIP ), silver ( MITF ), lavender ( MLPH ), roux ( TYRP1 ), imperfect albinism ( SLC45A2 ) and rusty . As compared with wild-type quail, all mutations but extended brown decreased total melanins. The largest decrease was observed in quail with one of the dilution mutations at TYRP1 , MLPH or SLCA45A2 . No difference in eumelanins was found between the 10 plumage colours. Despite visible colour differences, homozygous and heterozygous mutants at MITF , or the two imperfect albino (white) and cinnamon (pale yellow) alleles at SLC45A2, could not be differentiated on the basis of melanins. In contrast, the two white phenotypes caused by mutations at MITF and SLC45A2, or the two reddish plumage colours caused by the roux and rusty non-allelic mutations had different total melanin contents. The results showed that rusty was not likely to be a dilution mutation.     

Androgen influence on mating behavior in selected lines of Japanese quail

Bidirectional selection for high and low mating behavior has resulted in lines of Japanese quail that differ significantly in mating frequency. To evaluate the effects of this selection on the endocrine aspects of mating behavior, exogenous testosterone cypionate (TC) was administered to caponized and intact males from selected and control lines. Dosages of TC, administered as a single injection, were 0, 5.0, and 10.0 mg for the caponized and 1.25, 2.5, and 5.0 mg for the intact males. Mating performance was measured by testing each male individually with a series of female tester-flocks for eight 8-min periods.Capons mated within 3 to 4 days postinjection, with the period of peak activity occurring between the eighth and twelfth days. Hypertrophy of the cloacal gland followed a similar pattern. At no TC level was the mating frequency of caponized males from the low mating line equal to that of males from the high mating line. Furthermore, exogenous TC at these dosages failed to stimulate capons from the high and low mating lines to mate as frequently as the intact males of their respective lines. Exogenous TC had a depressing effect upon the mating frequency of intact males from the high mating and control lines but had no influence on those from the low mating line.     

Strategic mating with common preferences

We present a two-sided search model in which individuals from two groups (males and females, employers and workers) would like to form a long-term relationship with a highly ranked individual of the other group, but are limited to individuals who they randomly encounter and to those who also accept them. This article extends the research program, begun in Alpern and Reyniers [1999. J. Theor. Biol. 198, 71-88], of providing a game theoretic analysis for the Kalick-Hamilton [1986. J. Personality Soc. Psychol. 51, 673-682] mating model in which a cohort of males and females of various 'fitness' or 'attractiveness' levels are randomly paired in successive periods and mate if they accept each other. Their model compared two acceptance rules chosen to represent homotypic (similarity) preferences and common (or 'type') preferences. Our earlier paper modeled the first kind by assuming that if a level x male mates with a level y female, both get utility -|x-y|, whereas this paper models the second kind by giving the male utility y and the female utility x. Our model can also be seen as a continuous generalization of the discrete fitness-level game of Johnstone [1997. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 40, 51-59]. We establish the existence of equilibrium strategy pairs, give examples of multiple equilibria, and conditions guaranteeing uniqueness. In all equilibria individuals become less choosy over time, with high fitness individuals pairing off with each other first, leaving the rest to pair off later. This route to assortative mating was suggested by Parker [1983. Mate Choice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 141-164]. If the initial fitness distributions have atoms, then mixed strategy equilibria may also occur. If these distributions are unknown, there are equilibria in which only individuals in the same fitness band are mated, as in the steady-state model of MacNamara and Collins [1990. J. Appl. Prob. 28, 815-827] for the job search problem.     

In vivo aromatization of [3H]testosterone in high and low mating lines of Japanese quail

Japanese quail selected bidirectionally for adult mating frequency were utilized to study in vivo aromatization of testosterone (T) in relation to masculine copulatory behavior. Functionally castrated high (HM) and low mating (LM) line quail were injected with 75 microCi of [3H]T. One hour after the injection, all radioactivity recovered in telencephalic-diencephalic brain tissue was in the form of T, dihydrotestosterone (DHT), or estradiol (E2). Neither the total 3H nor the [3H]T metabolite radioactivity differed between the two genetic lines. Of all [3H]T metabolic radioactivity, [3H]E2 represented 45 +/- 6 % in the HM line and 46 +/- 6% in the LM line, indicating that the line difference in mating frequency was not due to a corresponding difference in aromatase activity. Inasmuch as both the HM and LM line birds actively converted T to E2, these results implicate a neural mechanism involving E2-receptor interactions as the cause of the behavioral differences between the HM and LM lines.     

Hungry females show stronger mating preferences

Female mating decisions that are based on condition-dependenttraits, such as male nutritional state, may be associated witha female's own condition. In the swordtail fish, Xiphophorusbirchmanni, females prefer the chemical cues of well-fed malesto cues of food-deprived males. Here we show that this preferenceis significantly stronger in females when they were experimentallyfood deprived than when they were well fed. Our results suggestthat if females have limited access to food resources, and arethemselves food deprived, they will attend to cues indicatingmale nutritional condition more than when environmental conditionsallow for greater access to food. Furthermore, not only is theslope of the preference function condition dependent but also,in all trials, the latency to respond to the presented stimuliwas shorter in food-deprived females, suggesting that responsivenessto environmental cues is condition dependent as well. Undernatural conditions, females of many species likely experiencevariation in resource availability. Thus, we predict that covariancebetween the strength of female preferences and resource availabilitymay be widespread and may represent a common source of femalepreference variation within and between populations.     

Magnesium deficiency in the Japanese quail

Morphological effects of magnesium deficiency on liver cells and general aspects of its influence on the metabolism were investigated in young quails. Magnesium deficiency was characterized by a depressed growth, a high mortality rate, a decrease in hematocrit and magnesium and calcium plasma concentrations. Magnesium deficiency reduced the magnesium concentration in heart by 44%, but did not affect the concentration in liver. Ultrastructural aspect of liver parenchymal cells revealed that the number of mitochondria per cell section was decreased and the average area of a mitochondrion was greater in deficient quails than in control animals. The significance of these morphological changes was discussed in relation to disturbances in energy metabolism of these organelles. From these results, japanese quail appeared as an interesting experimental model for studies on metabolic disturbances in magnesium deficiency.     

Genetic studies with Japanese quail

Summary An inbreeding study and two selection experiments with Japanese quail are reported which have been conducted on a comparative basis with similar work in chickens.Japanese quail exhibit pronounced inbreeding depression of reproductive traits such as egg production, fertility, hatchability and viability. Compared to the domestic fowl, the quail populations were found to show three times more damage from inbreeding for their entire reproductive cycle. These findings raise some questions concerning the history of the quail's domestication, and the breeding techniques required for developing highly inbred laboratory populations of that species.Selection experiments for high body weight at 6 weeks of age have shown response patterns comparable to those found in chicken populations. Inbreeding effects have tended to obscure some of the genetic gains in egg number which could be demonstrated only in appropriate comparisons with control populations.

---

Zusammenfassung Es wird über einen Inzuchtversuch und zwei Selektionsexperimente mit Japanischen Wachteln berichtet, die zum Vergleich mit ähnlichen Arbeiten mit Hühnern durchgeführt wurden.Die Japanische Wachtel zeigt bei reproduktiven Eigenschaften, wie Eiproduktion, Fertilität, Schlüpfen und Vitalität ausgesprochene Inzuchtdepression. Im Vergleich mit dem Haushuhn ergab sich, daß Wachtelpopulationen in ihrem gesamten Reproduktionszyklus dreifach höhere Inzuchtschäden aufwiesen. Diese Feststellungen werfen einige Fragen bezüglich der Geschichte der Domestikation und bezüglich der Zuchtmethoden auf, die angewendet werden müssen, um stark ingezüchtete Laborpopulationen dieser Art zu entwickeln.Selektionen auf hohes Körpergewicht im Alter von 6 Wochen brachten vergleichbare Werte mit bei Hühnerpopulationen gefundenen Ergebnissen. Durch Inzuchtwirkungen wurden z. T. genetisch bedingte Steigerungen der Eizahl verschleiert, die nur durch geeignete Vergleiche mit Kontrollpopulationen aufgezeigt werden konnten.

---

---

Dedicated to Professor Hans Stubbe on the occasion of his 65^th birthday.     

Evolution of female mating preferences in stalk-eyed flies

Sensory exploitation predicts that female mate preferences existbefore the evolution of exaggerated male ornaments. We testedthis prediction by estimating female preference functions, rematingintervals, and copulation durations for three species of stalk-eyedflies. Two species, Cyrtodiopsis whitei and C dalmanni, exhibitextreme sexual dimorphism in eye span, with eye stalks exceedingbody length in large males. In contrast, C quinqucguttata ofboth sexes possess short eye stalks. Maximum parsimony analysisof 437 basepairs of the 16S mitochondrial ribosomal RNA genefrom 6 Malaysian diopsids reveals that short, sexually monomorphiceye stalks are plesiomorphic in Cyrtodiopsis. Observations ofmultiple copulations by females in paired-choice mating chambersindicated that female C whitei and C. dalmanni exhibit relativepreferences for longer eye stalks such that preference intensityincreases linearly with the difference in eye stalk length betweenmales. Females from the sexually monomorphic species showedno detectable preference for male eye stalk length. Female matingpreferences of bodi sexually dimorphic species exhibited significantrepeatability, as expected if genetic variation underlies thepreference. In addition, female C whitei and C. dalmanni exhibitedshorter copulations, mated more frequently, and rejected fewermating attempts than female C quinqueguttata. Thus, opportunitiesfor sperm competition have increased with acquisition of femalepreferences. We conclude that female sensory bias for maleswith long eye span did not exist in a common ancestor to thesespecies. Instead, female preference and remating propensityeither coevolved with eye span dimorphism or evolved after maleeye stalks elongated.     

The role of mating preferences in shaping interspecific divergence in mating signals in vertebrates

Vertebrates represent one of the best-studied groups in terms of the role that mating preferences have played in the evolution of exaggerated secondary sexual characters and mating behaviours within species. Vertebrate species however, also exhibit enormous interspecific diversity in features of mating signals that has potentially led to reproductive isolation and speciation in many groups. The role that sexual selection has played in interspecific divergence in mating signals has been less fully explored. This review summarizes our current knowledge of how mating preferences within species have shaped interspecific divergence in mate recognition signals among the major vertebrate groups. Certain signal modalities appear to characterize mating signal diversification among different vertebrate taxa. Acoustic signals play an important role in mating decisions in anuran amphibians and birds. Here, different properties of the signal may convey information regarding individual, neighbor and species recognition. Mating preferences for particular features of the acoustic signal have led to interspecific divergence in calls and songs. Divergence in morphological traits such as colouration or ornamentation appears to be important in interspecific diversity in certain groups of fishes and birds. Pheromonal signals serve as the primary basis for species-specific mating cues in many salamander species, most mammals and even some fishes. The evolution of interspecific divergence in elaborate courtship displays may have played an important role in speciation of lizards, and particular groups of fishes, salamanders, birds and mammals. While much research has focused on the importance of mating preferences in shaping the evolution of these types of mating signals within species, the link between intraspecific preferences and interspecific divergence and speciation remains to be more fully tested. Future studies should focus on identifying how variation in mating preferences within a species shapes interspecific diversity in features of mating signals in order to better understand how sexual selection may have led to speciation in vertebrates.     

Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) inseminations are more likely to fertilize eggs in a context predicting mating opportunities

Theoretical developments in behavioural ecology have generated increased interest in the proximate mechanisms underlying fertilization, but little is known about how fertilization success is regulated by cues from the external or social environment in males and females. Here, we use a Pavlovian conditioning paradigm to show that inseminations resulting from mating male and female Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) are more likely to fertilize eggs when they occur in a context predicting that an opposite-sex bird will appear than when they occur in a context predicting that an opposite-sex bird will not appear. This effect occurs when either the male or the female is the target of the conditioning. Thus, processes occurring during or after mating that contribute to fertilization success are subject to the influence of distal cues, confirming control by brain-level mechanisms. Conditioning is a widespread property of the nervous system and the demonstration that context conditioning can influence male and female reproductive success, and not simply mating success, has widespread implications for the fertilization successes of different types of copulation in natural mating systems.     

Agonistic behavior and neurochemistry in grouped Japanese quail

Aggressive behavior and whole brain neurochemistry were measured in stable and unstable pairs of male Coturnix coturnix japonica. Aggressive pecking peaked on day 5 of the daily regrouping regime and returned to a basal level on day 14. Aggressive behavior was associated with increased brain norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in unstable pairs. Habituation (12-15 days) and DA response to daily regrouping and inanition were inversely related in unstable and stable pairs respectively. Normal whole brain NE increases were attenuated in unstable pairs.