合肥野生动物园黑麂的繁殖资料

合肥野生动物园自1978年开始进行黑麂(Muntiacus crinifrons)的饲养和繁殖,1989年第一胎圈养条件下繁殖的黑麂出生,到2001年底累计繁殖黑麂51头,繁殖种群正处迅速增长期。13年的繁殖资料统计结果表明,圈养条件下育龄母麂平均每12个月产一胎(多数在11—13个月,少数仅6—9个月),孕期240d左右,哺乳期2—3个月,少数母麂可产后发情,但极少有两年三次产仔现象。值得注意的是圈养条件下黑麂多在9—11月交配,4—7月产仔(80．39％)。圈养条件下黑麂幼年的死亡率较低(7．84％),成年黑麂多死于消化道及呼吸道感染等疾病(56％)。     

圈养繁殖大熊猫生存力的影响因素分析——基于大熊猫谱系数据

提高圈养繁殖大熊猫存活率是维持圈养种群可持续发展和开展野化放归研究的基础,为了探究圈养繁殖大熊猫生存力的影响因素,基于2019年的大熊猫谱系数据,不仅统计分析了不同年代和不同龄级(月龄、年龄组)圈养繁殖大熊猫的存活率和死亡率,而且利用广义线性模型系统分析了影响圈养繁殖大熊猫存活时间的主要因素.结果表明:1960—198...     

鸳鸯利用城市建筑物繁殖初步观察

鸳鸯(Aix galericulata)主要在我国东北地区繁殖,常在树洞里营巢.2008年7月,在广西桂林市城区发现鸳鸯利用居民厨房的通风道繁殖,产卵10枚,并孵出2只幼雏.这是鸳鸯利用建筑物营巢繁殖的首次记录,也是广西繁殖鸟类的新纪录.     

圈养大熊猫的繁殖特性和生命表

通过对最大的大熊猫(Ailuropoda melanoleuca)圈养种群——中国保护大熊猫研究中心的圈养种群的研究,总结了圈养大熊猫的繁殖生物学特性,编制了大熊猫的生命表。大熊猫是季节性繁殖的动物,每年春季3～4月发情交配,8月(30.49%)和9月(48.88%)产仔,每胎平均产仔1.5只,圈养繁殖大熊猫的雌雄比为1.11。大熊猫的妊娠期和幼兽的初生体重变化很大,分别平均为139.8天和142.6g。性成熟的年龄,雌性是5.7±1.1岁,雄性是5.8±0.58岁。根据圈养大熊猫的生命表计算出圈养种群的净增长率R0为0.209,世代周期T为9.187年,内禀增长率r为-0.170,周期增长率λ为0.844。     

影响扬子鳄产蛋量的因素分析

1997～2006年对安徽省扬子鳄繁殖研究中心内的扬子鳄亲本、F1代和F2代繁殖鳄群体在冬眠环境条件、采食量、年龄等方面进行观察,对各代繁殖鳄的年产蛋数量进行统计。用SPSS11.0软件中的one-way ANOVA方法分析比较人工饲养鳄各代群体之间及人工饲养鳄与野生鳄群体之间年产蛋数量的变化关系,结果显示区域内扬子鳄所建造的洞穴数量和其所建造洞穴的质量决定着圈养鳄的冬眠质量,鳄的冬眠质量影响到鳄体内的性腺系统正常发育,最终影响扬子鳄次年能否参加产蛋;年采食量影响鳄的产蛋数量。通过第1、2、5年间产蛋量F值检验(F值=4.866,P=0.009<0.05),得出圈养条件下扬子鳄的产蛋数量是随着产龄的增加而呈增长的趋势。     

兴隆山自然保护区麝场圈养马麝刻板行为的比较

于2001年3月—2002年1月,采用焦点取样法对甘肃兴隆山自然保护区麝场圈养马麝的刻板行为进行了研究。结果表明:该麝场的圈养马麝有刻板行为的发育,雌麝的刻板行为持续时间少于雄麝,但二者间的差异不显著。野捕马麝幼年期的人工哺乳经历使其刻板行为表达强度相对小于麝场圈养下繁殖马麝。年龄对雌雄麝的刻板行为表达强度的效应相似,亚成体马麝的刻板行为表达较多,成体马麝体的刻板行为表达相对较少,老年马麝刻板行为持续时间最长,2.5和4.5岁是圈养马麝刻板行为发育的关键时期。此外,能顺利繁殖的个体,其刻板行为表达的持续时间少于繁殖失败的个体。     

圈养及野生藏酋猴子代遗传多样性差异分析

为评价圈养及野生藏酋猴Macaca thibetana子代遗传多样性的差异,本研究利用藏酋猴线粒体控制区(mt DNA D-loop)全长序列,对四川省金阳地区野生亲本及子一代、马边地区野生亲本及圈养繁殖子一代共102只个体开展了遗传结构变异分析。结果显示,藏酋猴mt DNA D-loop的序列长度为1 091 bp,包括115个变异位点,66个单倍型,其中,马边种群亲本与子一代共享2个单倍型,金阳种群亲本与子一代共享1个单倍型。马边种群2个世代个体的核苷酸多态性分别为0.004 77和0.004 09;而金阳种群2个世代个体的核苷酸多态性分别为0.002 30和0.002 78,子一代与亲本的遗传多样性差异无统计学意义,均处于较低水平。马边和金阳地区子一代与亲本之间的遗传距离分别为0.024 09和0.002 55,表明圈养和野生条件下的子一代与亲本间均未出现明显的遗传分化。根据D-loop全长序列所构建的邻接(NJ)树显示,金阳或马边地区的不同世代个体在NJ树上互相交叉,未形成独有的进化支,说明无论自然条件下的随机交配还是圈养繁育的人为选择压力均没有对藏酋猴种群的遗传结构造成大的影响。本研究首次利用mt DNA D-loop全长序列分析藏酋猴野外与圈养繁殖的亲本与子一代间的遗传差异,为藏酋猴实验动物遗传控制标准化提供数据支持。     

三峡库区青干河峡谷鸳鸯越冬生境选择初探

从影响动物生境选择的水、食物、隐蔽物和干扰等因子对2010年11～12月在青干河首次发现的62只越冬鸳鸯新的越冬地环境进行了初步分析。结果表明:随着三峡水库蓄水至175m,长江支流青干河尾水段面积扩展及其他适宜水环境条件为越冬鸳鸯提供了良好生境;青干河及两岸分布的陆生植物及水生动植物为鸳鸯越冬提供了一定食物来源;两岸茂密的植被为鸳鸯陆上及水面的栖息提供了良好的隐蔽条件;人为干扰的负面影响较小成为鸳鸯越冬生境选择的重要因素。     

圈舍环境对圈养大熊猫发情率的影响

发情率低是圈养大熊猫Ailuropoda melanoleuca饲养的难题之一,也是制约圈养大熊猫繁育的重要因素。近年来,随着大熊猫圈养技术的不断进步,圈养大熊猫的发情率有了大幅提高,但并未达到特别高的水平。对中国保护大熊猫研究中心2006—2012年参与繁殖计划的圈养成年雌性大熊猫种群的发情率进行统计发现,2009—2012年每年雌性大熊猫的发情率高达90%以上,较2006—2008年的发情率有显著提高。2006—2012年,该大熊猫种群的饲养和管理模式、食物结构都未变化,但从2009年起圈舍环境有明显变化。经分析,该种群发情率的变化与圈舍面积、圈舍地形、圈舍植被覆盖率和植物种类等因素变化有关。本研究为提高圈养大熊猫的发情率从改善大熊猫圈舍条件的角度提供了有效的参考。     

圈养环境中不同来源成年雄性马麝的行为差异

于2004年8月--2005年1月,采用焦点取样和连续记录方法,对甘肃兴隆山自然保护区马麝(Moschus sifanicus)繁育中心的雄性马麝进行了行为取样.按照动物来源,将样本动物区分为野捕雄麝(17头)和圈养繁殖雄麝(6头),记录了静卧及站立凝视等12种行为的发生频次,并分别对其在交配季节和非交配季节的行为发生频率进行比较.结果表明,由于圈养环境和管理模式相同,甘肃兴隆山繁育中心的野捕和圈养繁殖马麝的总体行为格局类似,但由于幼年期人工哺乳等因素对其行为发育的影响,野捕雄麝在非交配季节和交配季节的冲突行为的表达频次显著多于圈养繁殖雄麝(P＜0.05),而圈养繁殖雄麝在交配季节的亲和行为极显著地多于野捕雄麝(P＜0.01).此外,雄麝在非交配季节的静卧行为发生频次极显著地多于交配季节(P＜0.01),而在交配季节的站立凝视、运动和环境探究及冲突的发生频次均极显著地比非交配季节多(P＜0.01).     

Experimental increase of flying costs in a pelagic seabird: effects on foraging strategies,nutritional state and chick condition

A central point in life history theory is that parental investment in current reproduction should be balanced by the costs in terms of residual reproductive value. Long-lived seabirds are considered fixed investors, that is, parents fix a specific level of investment in their current reproduction independent to the breeding requirements. We tested this hypothesis analysing the consequences of an experimental increase in flying costs on the foraging ecology, body condition and chick condition in Cory’s shearwaters Calonectris diomedea. We treated 28 pairs by reducing the wing surface in one partner and compared them with 14 control pairs. We monitored mass changes and incubation shifts and tracked 19 foraging trips per group using geolocators. Furthermore, we took blood samples at laying, hatching and chick-rearing to analyse the nutritional condition, haematology, muscle damage and stable isotopes. Eighty-day-old chicks were measured, blood sampled and challenged with PHA immune assay. In addition, we analysed the effects of handicap on the adults at the subsequent breeding season. During incubation, handicapped birds showed a greater foraging effort than control birds, as indicated by greater foraging distances and longer periods of foraging, covering larger areas. Eighty-day-old chicks reared by treated pairs were smaller and lighter and showed a lower immunity than those reared by control pairs. However, oxygen demands, nutritional condition and stable isotopes did not differ between control and handicapped birds. Although handicapped birds had to increase their foraging effort, they maintained physical condition by reducing parental investment and transferred the experimentally increased costs to their partners and the chick. This result supports the fixed investment hypothesis and is consistent with life history theory.     

Impact of miniaturized geolocators on barn swallow Hirundo rustica fitness traits

Miniaturized light‐level geolocators may revolutionise the study of avian migration. However, there are increasing concerns that they might negatively affect fitness. We investigated the impact of two miniaturized geolocator models (SOI‐GDL2.10, deployed in 2010, and SOI‐GDL2.11, deployed in 2011) on fitness traits of the barn swallow Hirundo rustica, one of the smallest migratory species to which geolocators have been applied to date. The 2011 model was lighter (by 0.09 g) and had a shorter light stalk compared to the 2010 model. Using data from 640 geolocator and 399 control individuals from three geographical populations, we found that geolocators reduced annual survival probabilities (control birds: 0.19–0.63; geolocator birds: 0.08–0.40, depending on year, sex, and how birds that lost the device were considered), with more markedly negative effects on females equipped with the 2010 model. In addition, among birds equipped with the 2010 model, onset of reproduction in the subsequent year was delayed (by 12 d) and females laid smaller first clutches (by 1.5 eggs, i.e. a 30% reduction) compared to controls. Equipping parents with geolocators while they were attending their brood did not affect nestling body mass or fledging success. A reduction of geolocator weight and drag by shortening the light stalk slightly enhanced the survival of females but not that of males, and mitigated the negative carry‐over effects on subsequent reproduction. Our study shows that geolocators can have a negative impact on survival and reproduction, and that even minor differences in weight and drag can make the difference. We suggest that studies aiming at deploying geolocators or other year‐round tagging devices should be preceded by pilot experiments to test for fitness effects.     

Trade-off between reproduction and moult – a comparison of three Fennoscandian pied flycatcher populations

Organisms that reproduce at high latitudes are assumed to have evolved several adaptations to the short summer. For birds, and especially for long-distance migrants, there is a time constraint because both reproduction and moult must be completed before autumn migration. It has therefore been assumed that birds at northern latitudes must initiate their moult during reproduction more often than birds at low latitudes. To investigate how passerine birds breeding at different latitudes allocate their time between reproduction and moult, we compared timing of these activities during three consecutive breeding seasons in three widely separated populations of the pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca. Our results show that the frequency of individuals with moult-breeding overlap, and moult initiation in relation to breeding stage, varied considerably among populations and years. In all three populations, female moult initiation was restricted to the late nestling period. The males had a more pronounced moult-breeding overlap than the females, but its duration was similar in all three study areas. Thus, there was no evidence for a more pronounced moult-breeding overlap at high compared with low latitudes. These results suggest that pied flycatchers sometimes accept a moult-breeding overlap, but that the time gained by having too extensive an overlap between reproduction and moult does not outweigh the associated costs. Long-distance migrants breeding at northern latitudes apparently experience a trade-off between reproduction and somatic investment during moult. We therefore suggest that a pronounced moult-breeding overlap is not a typical strategy used by long-distance migrants to adjust to the short breeding season at northern latitudes. Received: 7 May 1998 / Accepted: 24 August 1998     

The Evolution of Avian Senescence Patterns: Implications for Understanding Primary Aging Processes

SYNOPSIS. The long life spans of birds relative to those ofmammals are intriguing to biogerontologists, particularly inlight of birds' high body temperatures, high blood glucose levels,and high metabolic rates—all of which should theoreticallyincrease their biochemical liability for rapid aging. The comparativelongevity of birds and other flying homeotherms is consistentwith evolutionary senescence theory, which posits that specieswith low mortality rates from predation or accident will bereleased from selection for rapid maturity and early reproduction,and will exhibit retarded aging. Comparative analyses of avianlife history parameters to date, although not as extensive asthose for mammals, broadly support an association between lowmortality rates, slow reproduction, and long lifespan. The diversityof bird life histories suggests the importance of developinga diversity of avian models for studies of aging mechanisms,both proximate and ultimate, and for using wild as well as domesticrepresentatives. Birds studied in the laboratory thus far showmany of the same manifestations of aging as mammals, includinghumans, and many ornithologists are beginning to document actuarialevidence consistent with aging in their study populations. Weencourage greater communication and collaboration among comparativegerontologists and ornithologists, in the hope that the studyof aging in birds will lead to an integrated understanding ofphysiological aging processes well grounded in an evolutionaryparadigm.     

ADAPTIVE LIMITATION OF THE REPRODUCTIVE RATE OF BIRDS

Some biologists have held that the rate of reproduction in birds tends to be adjusted to the average annual mortality; others, that it is limited only by the parents' ability to raise sturdy young. The latter theory, that of maximum reproduction, is likely to be true only if three related propositions are true:(1) that an increase of clutch size is more likely to occur than some other mutation affecting the rate of reproduction; (2) that a genotype with a wastefully high rate of reproduction can supplant a genotype with a more conservative but adequate rate; and (3) that an excessive rate of reproduction is not harmful to the species. None of these assumptions has been proved. In a population not obliged to employ its full reproductive potential to maintain itself at a favourable level, mutations which limit this potential may arise and persist. They may effect this limitation by means of:(i) reduction in clutch size; (ii) reduction in the number of broods; (iii) failure of the male to attend the nest, often followed by failure to form pairs; (iv) deferment of reproductive maturity; (v) developments in territorialism that limit the number of nesting birds or the number of progeny they can rear; (vi) restriction of nesting to traditional sites; and (vii) the time-consuming construction of elaborate nests. These limitations of the rate of reproduction must be regarded as adaptive because, like other adaptations, they adjust the birds more perfectly to the conditions in which they live and reduce the stress to which they are subjected. In both tropical and temperate regions, species in which only the female feeds the nestlings have broods as large as species in which both parents feed them. It follows that the two parents are not rearing as many young as they could nourish. The view that hole-nesting birds can rear larger broods than open-nesters because their young develop more slowly, and require less food per capita per day, is untenable. Nestlings raised in holes and burrows gain weight about as rapidly as those in more exposed nests, but for safety they remain longer in their protected abodes. The larger broods of hole-nesters evidently compensate for the difficulty of obtaining nest sites, which delays the breeding of some pairs and prevents that of others. Clutch size is by no means closely adjusted to the number of young the parents can raise. If given additional nestlings, some birds attend them adequately. In other species, young are rarely fledged from all the eggs. In many cases, asynchronous hatching is not, as has been claimed, an arrangement which permits the parents to adjust to a varying food supply the number of young that they rear. In many raptors, fratricide and cannibalism reduce the size of the brood, sometimes to a single nestling, regardless of the abundance of food. The more stable the environment, the more closely the reproductive rate tends to be adjusted to the mortality; the more a population is subject to catastrophic reductions, the more the rate will approach the maximum. Primarily, the reproductive rate is controlled by heritable characters, which can adjust the rate to a stable environment but rarely respond to short-term fluctuations in external conditions or population density. The last fine adjustment of a population to its habitat is effected by processes that are density-dependent:either density-dependent regulation of the reproductive effort, or density-dependent mortality of adults or young, or a combination of the two. The general evolutionary trend in the Metazoa is toward producing fewer offspring and taking better care of them. This would hardly be possible if the more prolific genotype always prevails over those which raise smaller families and in consequence can attend their young somewhat better. The regulation of the rate of reproduction is a unique evolutionary problem, because a mutation conferring greater fertility, although often detrimental to the species, tends to diffuse through it as no other harmful mutation can. Yet it is counteracted by many factors, chiefly ecological, which operate subtly and are more difficult to appreciate than the force of numbers.     

Restoration of body mass in King Penguins after egg abandonment at a critical energy depletion stage: early vs late breeders

In fasting‐incubating seabirds, it has been proposed that egg abandonment and refeeding should be induced when a low body mass (BM) threshold is attained, thus ensuring adult survival at the expense of immediate breeding. In the context of life‐history trade‐offs in long‐lived birds, we have tested this hypothesis by comparing short‐term survival and restoration of BM in King Penguins Aptenodytes patagonicus that abandoned their egg to those that were relieved normally by their mate at the end of the first incubation shift. Since King Penguins have an extended laying period, the possible influence of seasonal factors was also examined by comparing early and late breeders. Forty incubating males were experimentally forced to fast until egg abandonment by preventing relief by the female. At egg abandonment of both early and late breeding males, BM was below the BM threshold, fasting duration was eight days (about 30%) longer than for relieved birds, and plasma uric acid level was elevated (signature of increased body protein catabolism, phase III of fasting). All abandoning birds survived and came back from sea at a BM similar to that of relieved penguins. The duration of the foraging trip of abandoning early breeders was the same as that of relieved birds, and some abandoning birds engaged in a new breeding attempt. Abandoning late breeders, however, made foraging trips twice as long as those of relieved males. This difference can be explained by time constraints rather than nutritional constraints, abandoning early breeders having enough time left in the breeding season to engage in a new breeding attempt in contrast to abandoning late breeders. These observations lend support to the suggestion that not only BM but also an internal clock intervene in the decision to engage in breeding or not. By preventing a lethal energy depletion ashore and by acting at a fasting stage where the capacity to restore BM at sea is unaffected, abandonment at a low body condition threshold plays a major role in the trade‐off between adult penguin survival and reproduction.     

Is Territory Defence related to Plumage Ornaments in the King Penguin Aptenodytes patagonicus?

Colourful ornaments in monogamous birds may be directed at potential mates or other conspecifics to signal individual condition, reproductive status or fighting ability, especially in monogamous and territorial species. We investigated whether the size of the orange auricular patch may be an indicator of aggressiveness in the king penguin Aptenodytes patagonicus , a monogamous and territorial seabird. The relationship between auricular patch size and defence behaviour was explored relative to territory location (centre vs. periphery of the colony), period of reproduction (early vs. late), state of reproduction (incubation vs. brooding) and sex. The proportion of time spent in territorial defence and the rate of aggressive behaviours were positively correlated with auricular patch size, mainly because central birds were more aggressive than peripheral birds and also had larger patch sizes. The period of reproduction, state of reproduction and sex did not interact with patch size to affect aggressiveness. Our results suggest that the size of the auricular patch in king penguins may be a reliable signal allowing individuals to evaluate the quality of mates or competitors in terms of aggressiveness. Whether aggressiveness is directly linked to patch size or indirectly through body condition, however, remains to be determined. In any event, birds with larger patches seem to gain central territories in the colony, thereby increasing their reproductive success. Finally, our study adds to the growing evidence that the evolution of sexually monomorphic ornaments may stem from mutual sexual selection.     

Carotenoids modulate the trade-off between egg production and resistance to oxidative stress in zebra finches

The allocation of resources to reproduction and survival is a central question of studies of life history evolution. Usually, increased allocation to current reproduction is paid in terms of reduced future reproduction and/or decreased survival. However, the proximal mechanisms underlying the cost of reproduction are poorly understood. Recently, it has been shown that increased susceptibility to oxidative stress might be one of such proximate links between reproduction and self-maintenance. Organisms possess a range of antioxidant defenses, including endogenously produced molecules (e.g., enzymes) and compounds ingested with food (e.g., carotenoids). If reproductive effort increases the production of reactive oxygen species, the availability of antioxidant defenses may partly or fully counteract the free-radical damages. One could, therefore, expect that the trade-off between reproduction and oxidative stress is modulated by the availability of antioxidant defenses. We tested this hypothesis in zebra finches. We manipulated reproductive effort by either allowing or preventing pairs to breed. Within each breeding or non-breeding group, the availability of antioxidant compounds was manipulated by supplementing or not supplementing the drinking water with carotenoids. We found that although birds in the breeding and non-breeding groups did not differ in their resistance to oxidative stress (the breakdown of red blood cells submitted to a controlled free-radical attack), one aspect of breeding effort (i.e., the number of eggs laid by birds in both breeding and non-breeding groups) was negatively correlated with resistance to oxidative stress only in birds that did not benefit from a carotenoid-supplemented diet. This result therefore suggests that carotenoid availability can modulate the trade-off between reproduction and resistance to oxidative stress.     

Effects of Aging and Mate Retention on Reproductive Success of Captive Female Peregrine Falcons

SYNOPSIS. Separating ecological (extrinsic) factors affectingreproduction from physiological and experiential (intrinsic)factors can be problematic in free-ranging animals. This studyexamined age-related changes in six measures of reproductivesuccess (clutch size, fertility, hatchability, brood size athatching, survivorship of nestlings, and brood size at fledging)for captive female peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) whereecological factors (i.e., access to mates, nesting sites, andfood) were not limiting and were similar across years and betweenindividuals. Mean nestling survivorship increased throughoutthe lifespan of the female while all other measures of reproductionpeaked at about seven years of age and decreased thereafter.Birds with prior breeding experience had higher productivitythan inexperienced birds of the same age. Productivity increasedwith increasing experience of the pair. Productivity droppedby an average of 53% when females experienced a change of mate,and then subsequently increased over a period of several years.Productivity was not affected when birds were moved to differentbreeding sites. There was no evidence that early improvementsin reproduction were related to chronological aging in the absenceof experiential differences. Birds that began breeding earlierproduced more fledglings during their lifetimes as a resultof higher annual productivity. Lifetime reproduction was notcorrelated with longevity because birds with higher maximalegg production had shorter breeding lifespans. Birds retainingmates produced more fledglings during their lifetime than birdsthat changed mates, but birds that changed mates more than oncedid not have lower lifetime reproduction than birds that hadonly one mate change. These results suggest that 1) age-relatedchanges in reproduction are not necessarily resource-mediated,2) in the absence of resource limitation, experience of thepair is a primary factor determining annual reproductive success,3) benefits of increasing experience may be offset by the onsetof senescence, 4) the cost of present egg production on futurereproductive potential supports a "pleiotropic" theory of aging,and 5) costs associated with mate changes may encourage selectionfor low "divorce" rates (i.e., lifetime monogamy) in this species.     

Temporal predictability in food availability: effects upon the reproductive axis in Scrub-Jays

Florida Scrub-Jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens) in a suburban environment with year-round access to multiple sources of abundant, human-source foods consistently breed earlier each year and have lower baseline levels of circulating corticosterone (CORT) than jays in a nearby wildland setting. These findings suggest that food supplies influence CORT levels, which in turn may partially determine the timing of reproduction. However, wildland birds with access to high-quality supplemental foods did not advance breeding or lower CORT levels to the degree observed in the suburbs. Therefore, rather than quality or quantity of food consumed, the perception of a reliable and predictable food supply may be an important factor in determining laying dates. If a predictable food supply accelerates the reproductive process, it follows that food provided on an unpredictable schedule may slow reproduction. We subjected captive Western Scrub-Jays (A. californica) to a 30-day photoperiod transition from short- to long-days and tested whether birds with access to food on an unpredictable schedule exhibited delayed or reduced production of reproductive hormones compared with birds given food on a predictable schedule. Baseline CORT concentrations increased slightly during the experiment, but did not differ between treatment groups. Birds with unpredictable food had slightly lower testosterone levels relative to controls, but there was no effect on estradiol or luteinizing hormone. Our findings offer weak support for the hypothesis that an unpredictable food supply will delay the onset of reproduction; however, the artificial lab environment may limit the application of these findings to free-living populations.