The influence of dispersal on the realized trajectory of a pond metacommunity

Dispersal rates play a critical role in metacommunity dynamics, yet few studies have attempted to characterize dispersal rates for the majority of species in any natural community. Here we evaluate the relationship between the abundances of 179 plankton taxa in a pond metacommunity and their dispersal rates. We find the expected positive relationship between the regional abundances of phytoplankton, protozoa and metazoan zooplankton, which is suggestive of dispersal being a density‐independent per capita rate for these groups. When we tested to see if the rates of dispersing taxa predicted changes in community composition, we found that dispersers had no measurable impact on the short‐term trajectory of local pond communities or mesocosm communities established experimentally (assembled communities), but became increasingly represented in the overall pond metacommunity during the course of the full growing season. In comparison, the composition of experimental mesocosms that lacked any initial zooplankton community (unassembled communities) were found to be driven by dispersal measured at the local pond community but not by dispersal observed across the overall metacommunity. These results suggest that the role of dispersal may shift from a contributor to local, ecological dynamics to that of metacommunity‐wide, colonization–extinction dynamics as communities assemble.     

Climate change affects colonization dynamics in a metacommunity of three Daphnia species

Climate change is expected to alter the range and abundance of many species by influencing habitat qualities. For species living in fragmented populations, not only the quality of the present patches but also access to new habitat patches may be affected. Here, we show that colonization in a metacommunity can be directly influenced by weather changes, and that these observed weather changes are consistent with global climate change models. Using a long‐term dataset from a rock pool metacommunity of the three species Daphnia magna, Daphnia longispina and Daphnia pulex with 507 monitored habitat patches, we correlated a four‐fold increase in colonization rate with warmer, drier weather for the period from 1982 to 2006. The higher colonization rate after warm and dry summers led to an increase in metacommunity dynamics over time. A mechanistic explanation for the increased colonization rate is that the resting stages have a higher exposure to animal and wind dispersal in desiccated rock pools. Although colonization rates reacted in the same direction in all three species, there were significant species‐specific effects that resulted in an overall change in the metacommunity composition. Increased local instability and colonization dynamics may even lead to higher global stability of the metacommunity. Thus, whereas climate change has been reported to cause a unidirectional change in species range for many other species, it changes the dynamics and composition of an entire community in this metacommunity, with winners and losers difficult to predict.     

Metacommunity,mainland‐island system or island communities? Assessing the regional dynamics of plant communities in a fragmented landscape

Understanding the regional dynamics of plant communities is crucial for predicting the response of plant diversity to habitat fragmentation. However, for fragmented landscapes the importance of regional processes, such as seed dispersal among isolated habitat patches, has been controversially debated. Due to the stochasticity and rarity of among‐patch dispersal and colonization events, we still lack a quantitative understanding of the consequences of these processes at the landscape‐scale. In this study, we used extensive field data from a fragmented, semi‐arid landscape in Israel to parameterize a multi‐species incidence‐function model. This model simulates species occupancy pattern based on patch areas and habitat configuration and explicitly considers the locations and the shapes of habitat patches for the derivation of patch connectivity. We implemented an approximate Bayesian computation approach for parameter inference and uncertainty assessment. We tested which of the three types of regional dynamics – the metacommunity, the mainland‐island, or the island communities type – best represents the community dynamics in the study area and applied the simulation model to estimate the extinction debt in the investigated landscape. We found that the regional dynamics in the patch‐matrix study landscape is best represented as a system of highly isolated ‘island’ communities with low rates of propagule exchange among habitat patches and consequently low colonization rates in local communities. Accordingly, the extinction rates in the local communities are the main drivers of community dynamics. Our findings indicate that the landscape carries a significant extinction debt and in model projections 33–60% of all species went extinct within 1000 yr. Our study demonstrates that the combination of dynamic simulation models with field data provides a promising approach for understanding regional community dynamics and for projecting community responses to habitat fragmentation. The approach bears the potential for efficient tests of conservation activities aimed at mitigating future losses of biodiversity.     

Scale-dependence and mechanisms of dispersal in freshwater zooplankton

Communities of organisms form as a result of both interspecific and abiotic interactions within local habitat patches and dispersal among patches in a region. Local processes are expected to play a dominant role when dispersal occurs much more often than extinction. We performed two field experiments to examine rates and mechanisms of dispersal in freshwater pond zooplankton communities. First, we tested the effect of distance from a source on the rate of colonization of artificial habitat by placing wading pools at 5, 10, 30 and 60 m from two natural fishless ponds and observing the succession of zooplankton. Seventy-eight percent of the species in the source ponds that were capable of living in the pools colonized at least once during the experiment. A new species was found in the pools on average once every four days, suggesting that colonization events occur on the order of days to weeks for many species. Colonization rates declined further from the source at one pond but not the other, and the effect of distance was relatively weak at both ponds. This suggests that many species disperse broadly over short distances. The second experiment tested the role of animal vectors for zooplankton dispersal by restricting access to the pools. Eight treatments were imposed that excluded potential animal vectors along a body size gradient from large mammals to small insects. While the treatments affected zooplankton colonization, many species invaded even when all animals larger than 1 mm were excluded. Animal vectors may therefore be less important for dispersal than wind. Our results suggest that zooplankton are highly effective dispersers over short distances, and can disperse via several mechanisms. Local interactions should therefore play a dominant role in structuring these communities at small regional scales.     

Strong spatial influence on colonization rates in a pioneer zooplankton metacommunity

The magnitude of community-wide dispersal is central to metacommunity models, yet dispersal is notoriously difficult to quantify in passive and cryptic dispersers such as many freshwater invertebrates. By overcoming the problem of quantifying dispersal rates, colonization rates into new habitats can provide a useful estimate of the magnitude of effective dispersal. Here we study the influence of spatial and local processes on colonization rates into new ponds that indicate differential dispersal limitation of major zooplankton taxa, with important implications for metacommunity dynamics. We identify regional and local factors that affect zooplankton colonization rates and spatial patterns in a large-scale experimental system. Our study differs from others in the unique setup of the experimental pond area by which we were able to test spatial and environmental variables at a large spatial scale. We quantified colonization rates separately for the Copepoda, Cladocera and Rotifera from samples collected over a period of 21 months in 48 newly constructed temporary ponds of 0.18–2.95 ha distributed in a restored wetland area of 2,700 ha in Doñana National Park, Southern Spain. Species richness upon initial sampling of new ponds was about one third of that in reference ponds, although the rate of detection of new species from thereon were not significantly different, probably owing to high turnover in the dynamic, temporary reference ponds. Environmental heterogeneity had no detectable effect on colonization rates in new ponds. In contrast, connectivity, space (based on latitude and longitude) and surface area were key determinants of colonization rates for copepods and cladocerans. This suggests dispersal limitation in cladocerans and copepods, but not in rotifers, possibly due to differences in propagule size and abundance.     

Matrix context and patch quality jointly determine diversity in a landscape‐scale experiment

The biodiversity of a habitat patch is predicted to be driven in part by interactions between patch quality and landscape context (i.e. type of regional matrix), but these interactions are rarely explored experimentally. Understanding the interaction between patch quality and matrix context can provide insight into the kind of dynamics that best describe a metacommunity and help predict how the diversity of a patch will respond to environmental change at different scales. We conducted a landscape‐scale experiment to examine how regional and local aspects of the terrestrial matrix interact to affect biodiversity within artificial ponds designed to mimic generic features of freshwater ephemeral ponds. We manipulated both the kind of matrix surrounding ponds (open canopy grassland, pine forest, and hardwood forest) and pond quality (three different types of leaf litter substrate). Ponds were left open to natural colonization for three months by aquatic insects and amphibians. The terrestrial matrix had consistent and strong effects on biodiversity throughout the experiment: ponds in open canopy areas had more animal morphotypes than ponds in pine or hardwood forests. Leaf litter type affected biodiversity during the experiment, with more animal morphotypes in ponds with higher quality litter than ponds with lower quality litter, and this effect was stronger in open canopy areas. The effect of leaf litter, however, disappeared by the end of the experiment. Our results suggest that the matrix surrounding patches has strong effects on community dynamics and biodiversity within patches, and conservation efforts aimed at maintaining biodiversity requires simultaneous consideration of both matrix habitats and habitat patches.     

Metacommunity size influences aquatic community composition in a natural mesocosm landscape

Ecosystems are often arranged in naturally patchy landscapes with habitat patches linked by dispersal of species in a metacommunity. The size of a metacommunity, or number of patches, is predicted to influence community dynamics and therefore the structure and function of local communities. However, such predictions have yet to be experimentally tested using full food webs in natural metacommunities. We used the natural mesocosm system of aquatic macroinvertebrates in bromeliad phytotelmata to test the effect of the number of patches in a metacommunity on species richness, abundance, and community composition. We created metacommunities of varying size using fine mesh cages to enclose a gradient from a single bromeliad up to the full forest. We found that species richness, abundance, and biomass increased from enclosed metacommunities to the full forest size and that diversity and evenness also increased in larger enclosures. Community composition was affected by metacommunity size across the full gradient, with a more even detritivore community in larger metacommunities, and taxonomic groups such as mosquitoes going locally extinct in smaller metacommunities. We were able to divide the effects of metacommunity size into aquatic and terrestrial habitat components and found that the importance of each varied by species; those with simple life cycles were only affected by local aquatic habitat whereas insects with complex life cycles were also affected by the amount of terrestrial matrix. This differential survival of obligate and non‐obligate dispersers allowed us to partition the beta‐diversity between metacommunities among functional groups. Our study is one of the first tests of metacommunity size in a natural metacommunity landscape and shows that both diversity and community composition are significantly affected by metacommunity size. Synthesis Natural food webs are sensitive to meta‐community size, i.e. the number of patches connected through dispersal. We provide an empirical test using the aquatic foodweb associated within bromeliads as a model system. When we reduced the number of bromeliad patches connect through dispersal, we found a clear change of the foodweb in terms of population sizes, beta diversity, community composition and predator‐prey ratios. The response of individual taxa was predictable based on species traits including dispersal modes, life cycle, and adult resource requirements. Our study demonstrates that community structure is strongly influenced by the interplay of species traits and landscape properties.     

Climate change in metacommunities: dispersal gives double-sided effects on persistence

Climate change is increasingly affecting the structure and dynamics of ecological communities both at local and at regional scales, and this can be expected to have important consequences for their robustness and long-term persistence. The aim of the present work is to analyse how the spatial structure of the landscape and dispersal patterns of species (dispersal rate and average dispersal distance) affects metacommunity response to two disturbances: (i) increased mortality during dispersal and (ii) local species extinction. We analyse the disturbances both in isolation and in combination. Using a spatially and dynamically explicit metacommunity model, we find that the effect of dispersal on metacommunity persistence is two-sided: on the one hand, high dispersal significantly reduces the risk of bottom-up extinction cascades following the local removal of a species; on the other hand, when dispersal imposes a risk to the dispersing individuals, high dispersal increases extinction risks, especially when dispersal is global. Large-bodied species with long generation times at the highest trophic level are particularly vulnerable to extinction when dispersal involves a risk. This suggests that decreasing the mortality risk of dispersing individuals by improving the quality of the habitat matrix may greatly increase the robustness of metacommunities.     

Warming induces synchrony and destabilizes experimental pond zooplankton metacommunities

The spatial insurance hypothesis predicts that intermediate rates of dispersal between patches in a metacommunity allow species to track favourable conditions, preserving diversity and stabilizing biomass at local and regional scales. However, theory is unclear as to whether dispersal will provide spatial insurance when environmental conditions are changing directionally. In particular, increased temperatures as a result of climate change are expected to cause synchronous growth or decline across species and communities, and this has the potential to erode the stabilizing compensatory dynamics facilitated by dispersal. Here we report on an experimental test of how dispersal affects the diversity and stability of metacommunities under warming using replicate two‐patch pond zooplankton metacommunities. Initial differences in local community composition and abiotic conditions were established by seeding each patch in the metacommunities with plankton and sediment from one of two natural ponds that differed in water chemistry and species composition. We exposed metacommunities to a 2°C increase in average ambient temperature, crossed with three rates of dispersal (none, intermediate, high). In ambient conditions, intermediate dispersal rates preserved diversity and stabilized metacommunities by promoting spatially asynchronous fluctuations in biomass, especially between local populations of the dominant genus, Ceriodaphnia. However, warming synchronized their populations so that these effects of dispersal were lost. Furthermore, because the stabilizing effect of dispersal was primarily due to asynchronous fluctuations between populations of a single genus, metacommunity biomass was stabilized, but dispersal did not stabilize local community biomass. Our results show that dispersal can preserve diversity and provide stability to metacommunities, but also show that this benefit can be eroded when warming is directional and synchronous across patches of a metacommunity, as is expected with climate warming.     

Proximity of restored hedgerows interacts with local floral diversity and species' traits to shape long‐term pollinator metacommunity dynamics

Disconnected habitat fragments are poor at supporting population and community persistence; restoration ecologists, therefore, advocate for the establishment of habitat networks across landscapes. Few empirical studies, however, have considered how networks of restored habitat patches affect metacommunity dynamics. Here, using a 10‐year study on restored hedgerows and unrestored field margins within an intensive agricultural landscape, we integrate occupancy modelling with network theory to examine the interaction between local and landscape characteristics, habitat selection and dispersal in shaping pollinator metacommunity dynamics. We show that surrounding hedgerows and remnant habitat patches interact with the local floral diversity, bee diet breadth and bee body size to influence site occupancy, via colonisation and persistence dynamics. Florally diverse sites and generalist, small‐bodied species are most important for maintaining metacommunity connectivity. By providing the first in‐depth assessment of how a network of restored habitat influences long‐term population dynamics, we confirm the conservation benefit of hedgerows for pollinator populations and demonstrate the importance of restoring and maintaining habitat networks within an inhospitable matrix.     

Defining core habitat of local populations of the gray treefrog (Hyla versicolor) based on choice of oviposition site

Concern over amphibian population declines and loss of terrestrial and aquatic habitat have emphasized the need to define habitat requirements for each stage in a species' life history. The realization that pond-breeding amphibians spend most of their lives in the terrestrial environment suggests the need to protect terrestrial as well as aquatic habitat. Many studies on amphibian populations have focused on emigration from breeding sites to define habitat use; however these studies do not typically elucidate terrestrial activities of adults within the breeding season. We measured colonization rates of artificial pools by gray treefrogs (Hyla versicolor) at multiple distances from natural breeding ponds. We found a non-random distribution of egg deposition among distances, with 95% of eggs deposited within 15 m of the breeding pond. Additionally, we found that the time to first colonization of artificial pools increased with respect to distance. Our results indicate that adult gray treefrogs may travel up to 200 m within a breeding season, and that multiple breeding ponds may be considered part of a single population. We suggest that a minimum core terrestrial habitat of 60 m surrounding breeding sites is appropriate for protection of local populations of gray treefrogs.     

Effects of forest canopy on habitat selection in treefrogs and aquatic insects: implications for communities and metacommunities

The specific dispersal/colonization strategies used by species to locate and colonize habitat patches can strongly influence both community and metacommunity structure. Habitat selection theory predicts nonrandom dispersal to and colonization of habitat patches based on their quality. We tested whether habitat selection was capable of generating patterns of diversity and abundance across a transition of canopy coverage (open and closed canopy) and nutrient addition by investigating oviposition site choice in two treefrog species (Hyla) and an aquatic beetle (Tropisternus lateralis), and the colonization dynamics of a diverse assemblage of aquatic insects (primarily beetles). Canopy cover produced dramatic patterns of presence/absence, abundance, and species richness, as open canopy ponds received 99.5% of propagules and 94.6% of adult insect colonists. Nutrient addition affected only Tropisternus oviposition, as females oviposited more egg cases at higher nutrient levels, but only in open canopy ponds. The behavioral partitioning of aquatic landscapes into suitable and unsuitable habitats via habitat selection behavior fundamentally alters how communities within larger ecological landscapes (metacommunities) are linked by dispersal and colonization.     

Metacommunity dynamics of amphibians in years with differing rainfall

Many studies investigated the habitat preference and behaviour ecology of individual amphibian species while we know less about how their community assembly reflects changes in environmental factors, including the role of climatic extremes. Community-level studies also allow us to apply trait-based analyses that are crucial for a better understanding of the functioning of amphibian communities and metacommunities. In two years with contrasting rainfall (2012 and 2013), we found amphibian species in 85 different waterbodies of a heterogeneous landscape in Central Europe (Hungary). Within the metacommunity framework, the contributions of local, landscape and spatial variables to community assembly were assessed. We also measured the local extinction–colonisation rates in the ponds for all species between the two years. To investigate the role of dispersal traits in explaining the spatial distribution of species, we studied the relationship between body size and the pure spatial fraction of variation. According to our results, the main drivers were the same in both the dry and wet year, but their relative contribution changed. Local variables played a predominant role in the assembly of the amphibian metacommunity. Spatial signals were more evident in the dry year. This implies not only the adverse effect of decreased connectivity due to the drying out of several habitats but also a loss of breeding sites for the studied amphibians. Local colonisation rates were higher in primarily terrestrial species (Hyla arborea, Pelobates fuscus, Bufo bufo) which only visit ponds during breeding. We found a negative relationship between the pure spatial effect and body size, suggesting an increased level of dispersal limitation in small-bodied species. Our results showed that while the strength and relative role of local and spatial processes changed between years, the role of dispersal traits in explaining the spatial distribution of species was similar. Specialisation to different habitats seems to be a major process in determining vertebrate metacommunities in landscapes. Dispersal traits of different species should be taken more into consideration in the practical conservation of amphibian habitats.     

Do invasive species undergo metapopulation dynamics? A case study of the invasive Caspian gull,Larus cachinnans,in Poland

Aim The mechanisms of initial dispersal and habitat occupancy by invasive alien species are fundamental ecological problems. Most tests of metapopulation theory are performed on local population systems that are stable or in decline. In the current study we were interested in the usefulness of metapopulation theory to study patch occupancy, local colonization, extinction and the abundance of the invasive Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans) in its initial invasion stages. Location Waterbodies in Poland. Methods Characteristics of the habitat patches (waterbodies, 35 in total) occupied by breeding pairs of Caspian gulls and an equal sample of randomly selected unoccupied patches were compared with t‐tests. Based on presence–absence data from 1989 to 2006 we analysed factors affecting the probability of local colonization, extinction and the size of local populations using generalized linear models. Results Occupied habitat patches were significantly larger and less isolated (from other habitat patches and other local populations) and were located closer to rivers than empty patches. The proximity of local food resources (fish ponds, refuse dumps) positively affected the occurrence of breeding pairs. The probability of colonization was positively affected by patch area, and negatively by distances to fish ponds, nearest habitat patch, nearest breeding colony and to a river, and by higher forest cover around the patch boundaries. The probability of extinction was lower in patches with a higher number of breeding pairs and with a greater area of islets. The extinction probability increased with distances to other local populations, other habitat patches, fish ponds and to refuse dumps and with a higher cover of forest around the patch boundaries. The size of the local population decreased with distances to the nearest habitat patch, local population, river, fish pond and refuse dump. Local abundance was also positively affected by the area of islets in the patch. Main conclusions During the initial stages of the invasion of Caspian gulls in Poland the species underwent metapopulation‐like dynamics with frequent extinctions from colonized habitat patches. The results prove that metapopulation theory may be a useful conceptual framework for predicting which habitats are more vulnerable to invasion.     

阿拉善荒漠啮齿动物集合群落实证研究

当生态学家探求在破碎化的栖息地中,群落物种的共存机制、多样性、局域尺度的性质和过程被放到更广阔的时空框架内时,就出现了"集合群落"这一概念。Leibold提出了集合群落概念,他们将一个集合群落定义为局域群落集,这些群落由各个潜在的相互作用的物种的扩散连接在一起。集合群落理论描述了那些发生在集合群落尺度上的过程,并且提出思考关于物种相互作用的新方法。集合群落概念为群落生态学提供了一个新的革命性的范式,集合群落研究的最基本问题是同一系统中多物种共存的机理、多样性的形成原因与维持机制。该范式强调区域范围内群落中的综合变异,强调环境特证和栖息地之间通过扩散调节的生物相互作用和空间变化。Leibold等提出了解释集合群落结果理论上的4个生态范式,即(1)中性理论;(2)斑块动态理论;(3)物种分配理论;(4)集团效应理论。之后有大量有关检验这4种生态理论的研究,但是有关陆地脊椎动物系统的集合群落的研究较少。2010—2012年,通过在内蒙古阿拉善荒漠景观中的8个固定样地中,对啮齿动物、栖息地环境因子进行调查。利用冗余分析和偏冗余分析,评估环境特征和空间特征对物种组成的影响。结果表明,环境特征独自解释72.8%的啮齿动物物种组成变化,空间特征独自解释33.8%的物种组成变化,环境特征和空间特征共同解释86.5%的啮齿动物物种组成变化,结果显著(P=0.032);去除环境特征之后,空间特征解释13.7%的变化(P=0.246),结果不显著;去除空间特征之后,栖息地变化解释52.7%的变化(P=0.016);环境特征和空间特征的交互作用解释20.1%的物种组成的变化,该区域啮齿动物群落构成集合群落,物种共存中环境特征起着主导作用,由物种分配理论解释该集合群落结构。     

Dispersal among local communities does not reduce historical contingencies during metacommunity assembly

Ample evidence suggests that ecological communities can exhibit historical contingencies. However, few studies have explored whether differences in assembly history can generate alternative local community states in metacommunities in which local communities are linked by dispersal. In a protist microcosm experiment, we examined the influence of species colonization history on metacommunity assembly under homogeneous environmental conditions, by manipulating both the sequence of species colonization into local communities and the rate of dispersal among local communities. Whereas the role of dispersal in structuring local communities decreased over time and became non‐significant towards the end of the experiment, species colonization history significantly influenced local communities throughout the experiment. Local communities, regardless of the rate of dispersal among them, exhibited two alternative states characterized by the dominance of different species. The alternative community states, however, emerged in the absence of priority effects that were often associated with alternative community states found in other assembly studies. Rather, they were driven by variation in species interaction strength among local communities with different assembly histories. These results suggest that dispersal among local communities may not necessarily reduce the role of species colonization history in shaping metacommunity assembly, and that differences in species colonization history need to be explicitly considered as an important factor in causing heterogeneous community states in metacommunities.     

Inferring species roles in metacommunity structure from species co-occurrence networks

A long-standing question in community ecology is what determines the identity of species that coexist across local communities or metacommunity assembly. To shed light upon this question, we used a network approach to analyse the drivers of species co-occurrence patterns. In particular, we focus on the potential roles of body size and trophic status as determinants of metacommunity cohesion because of their link to resource use and dispersal ability. Small-sized individuals at low-trophic levels, and with limited dispersal potential, are expected to form highly linked subgroups, whereas large-size individuals at higher trophic positions, and with good dispersal potential, will foster the spatial coupling of subgroups and the cohesion of the whole metacommunity. By using modularity analysis, we identified six modules of species with similar responses to ecological conditions and high co-occurrence across local communities. Most species either co-occur with species from a single module or are connectors of the whole network. Among the latter are carnivorous species of intermediate body size, which by virtue of their high incidence provide connectivity to otherwise isolated communities playing the role of spatial couplers. Our study also demonstrates that the incorporation of network tools to the analysis of metacommunity ecology can help unveil the mechanisms underlying patterns and processes in metacommunity assembly.     

Habitat destruction in mutualistic metacommunities

We investigate a mutualistic metacommunity where the strength of the mutualistic interaction between species is measured by the extent to which the presence of one species on a patch either reduces the extinction rate of the others present on the same patch or increases their ability to colonize other patches. In both cases, a strong enough mutualism enables all species to persist at habitat densities where they would all be extinct in the absence of the interaction. However, a mutualistic interaction that enhances colonization enables the species to persist at lower habitat density than one that suppresses extinction. All species abruptly go extinct (catastrophe) when the habitat density is decreased infinitesimally below a critical value. A comparison of the mean field or spatially implicit case with unrestricted dispersal and colonization to all patches in the system with a spatially explicit case where dispersal is restricted to the immediate neighbours of the original patch leads to the intriguing conclusion that restricted dispersal can be favourable for species that have a beneficial effect on each other when habitat conditions are adverse. When the mutualistic interaction is strong enough, the extinction threshold or critical amount of habitat required for the persistence of all species is lower when the dispersal is locally restricted than when unrestricted ! The persistence advantage for all species created by the mutualistic interaction increases substantially with the number of species in the metacommunity, as does the advantage for restricted dispersal over global dispersal.     

Density-dependent dispersal and relative dispersal affect the stability of predator-prey metacommunities

Although density-dependent dispersal and relative dispersal (the difference in dispersal rates between species) have been documented in natural systems, their effects on the stability of metacommunities are poorly understood. Here we investigate the effects of intra- and interspecific density-dependent dispersal on the regional stability in a predator-prey metacommunity model. We show that, when the dynamics of the populations reach equilibrium, the stability of the metacommunity is not affected by density-dependent dispersal. However, the regional stability, measured as the regional variability or the persistence, can be modified by density-dependent dispersal when local populations fluctuate over time. Moreover these effects depend on the relative dispersal of the predator and the prey. Regional stability is modified through changes in spatial synchrony. Interspecific density-dependent dispersal always desynchronizses local dynamics, whereas intraspecific density-dependent dispersal may either synchronize or desynchronize it depending on dispersal rates. Moreover, intra- and interspecific density-dependent dispersal strengthen the top-down control of the prey by the predator at intermediate dispersal rates. As a consequence the regional stability of the metacommunity is increased at intermediate dispersal rates. Our results show that density-dependent dispersal and relative dispersal of species are keys to understanding the response of ecosystems to fragmentation.     

Patch quality and context, but not patch number, drive multi-scale colonization dynamics in experimental aquatic landscapes

Colonization and extinction are primary drivers of local population dynamics, community structure, and spatial patterns of biological diversity. Existing paradigms of island biogeography, metapopulation biology, and metacommunity ecology, as well as habitat management and conservation biology based on those paradigms, emphasize patch size, number, and isolation as primary characteristics influencing colonization and extinction. Habitat selection theory suggests that patch quality could rival size, number, and isolation in determining rates of colonization and resulting community structure. We used naturally colonized experimental landscapes to address four issues: (a) how do colonizing aquatic beetles respond to variation in patch number, (b) how do they respond to variation in patch quality, (c) does patch context affect colonization dynamics, and (d) at what spatial scales do beetles respond to habitat variation? Increasing patch number had no effect on per patch colonization rates, while patch quality and context were critical in determining colonization rates and resulting patterns of abundance and species richness at multiple spatial scales. We graphically illustrate how variation in immigration rates driven by perceived predation risk (habitat quality) can further modify dynamics of the equilibrium theory of island biogeography beyond predator-driven effects on extinction rates. Our data support the importance of patch quality and context as primary determinants of colonization rate, occupancy, abundance, and resulting patterns of species richness, and reinforce the idea that management of metapopulations for species preservation, and metacommunities for local and regional diversity, should incorporate habitat quality into the predictive equation.