肠道菌群及其代谢产物与T2DM发病机制及干预措施*

2型糖尿病(type 2 diabetes mellitus,T2DM)是一种因胰岛素分泌不足或胰岛素抵抗而引起的慢性代谢疾病,T2DM患病人数的快速增长使治疗和预防T2DM成为世界上亟待解决的医学问题。随着微生物组学技术的进步,肠道菌群及其代谢产物与T2DM的研究亦逐渐深入,肠道菌群可能成为治疗和预防T2DM的靶点。肠道菌群及其代谢产物作用于T2DM的潜在机制,主要是参与体内炎症反应、增加肠道短链脂肪酸产量、调节肠道胆汁酸的代谢、调节支链氨基酸的代谢等。目前,治疗T2DM的药物可能会产生一些副作用,而基于肠道菌群干预T2DM的措施相对安全无害。例如,可通过严格控制的特定结构饮食长期摄入或增加益生菌的长期摄取控制血糖,或通过口服可影响肠道菌群生态结构的降糖药物(二甲双胍、阿卡波糖)有效地调控血糖水平。综述基于肠道菌群及其代谢产物诱发T2DM的潜在机制,研讨基于肠道菌群干预T2DM的措施,从肠道菌群的新视角探索治疗T2DM的新方法,为彻底治疗T2DM提供一种新可能。     

肠道菌群对2型糖尿病的调节机制

2型糖尿病(type 2 diabetes mellitus,T2DM)是一种遗传和环境因素共同作用的复杂的代谢性疾病,约占糖尿病患者总数的90％以上。以往,人们一直认为导致T2DM发生的肥胖是外部因素所致,但目前已有证据表明,身体内部因素同样是导致肥胖的诱因之一。人体微生物群的最新研究表明,个体肠道中的特定菌群可能促进肥胖、炎症或胰岛素抵抗的发生,最终诱发T2DM。这使得肠道菌群及其在T2DM中的作用以及肠道益生菌的潜在治疗价值成为T2DM领域中的一个重要研究方向。本综述旨在通过研究健康人群和T2DM患者肠道菌群的分布,探讨肠道菌群与T2DM的相互作用及调节机制。     

基于肠道微生态探讨黄连素在代谢性疾病中的抗炎作用

肠道菌群与能量代谢密切相关,其组成和代谢紊乱可通过多种途径导致胰岛素抵抗,肥胖和2型糖尿病。黄连素因具有减重、降糖、调脂等作用被广泛用于肥胖、2型糖尿病及非酒精性脂肪性肝病等代谢性疾病的辅助治疗;研究表明,黄连素可调节肠道菌群的组成和代谢,改善肠道微生态环境,从而改善胰岛素抵抗和代谢。本文综述了黄连素通过肠道菌群-炎症轴在干预代谢性疾病的研究进展,以期为代谢性疾病的治疗寻找新的策略,并为今后该领域的深入研究提供指导意义。     

肠道菌群与2型糖尿病微血管病变的相关性——

2型糖尿病（T2DM）微血管病变是世界范围内最具热点的难题之一,其发病率和患病率不断上升。诸多研究证实肠道菌群与T2DM微血管病变之间存在复杂的关系。肠道菌群的改变导致胃肠道（GI）内环境紊乱,加快异常代谢产物生成、糖脂代谢紊乱、炎症反应,甚至胰岛素抵抗（IR）。短链脂肪酸（SCFAs）、脂多糖（LPS）、吲哚丙酸（IPA）和支链氨基酸（BCAAs）等通过不同代谢和免疫途径参与T2DM微血管病变的发生发展。本文旨在探讨肠道菌群与T2DM常见微血管病变（如肾病、周围神经病变、视网膜病变等）相关性及其免疫致病机制,以期为T2DM微血管病变的诊断治疗和科学研究提供方法。

     

肠道短链脂肪酸与2型糖尿病相关性研究进展

2型糖尿病(type 2 diabetes,T2DM)是一种以高血糖为特征的代谢性疾病。随着经济的发展,人们的生活方式发生了巨大的变化,T2DM患者数量不断增加。T2DM的发病机制复杂,与遗传、环境、年龄、种族及生活方式等密切相关。近年来,许多研究表明肠道菌群通过多种途径参与T2DM的发生,其中短链脂肪酸起着主要作用。短链脂肪酸作为肠道菌群的代谢产物,能通过调节食欲、影响胰岛素分泌以及改变T2DM患者的血糖来影响发病过程。因此,通过调节体内的短链脂肪酸有望成为预防糖尿病的有效途径之一。     

肠道菌群对1型糖尿病肠道通透性及免疫作用机制研究进展

1型糖尿病(Diabetes mellitus type1,T1DM)是一种青少年易发的胰岛β细胞被定向破坏引起的自身免疫性疾病,其发病机制可能与遗传、环境、免疫等因素有关。近年来研究发现,肠道菌群可能作为环境因素参与了T1DM的进程。在T1DM患者及动物模型肠道内存在菌群失调,肠道菌群可通过调节肠道通透性、固有免疫和适应性免疫等影响T1DM的疾病进程。综述了近年来国内外学者对肠道菌群与T1DM的发病机制关系的研究新进展,以期为T1DM的防治提供参考。     

肠道菌群与儿童1型糖尿病关系的研究进展

1型糖尿病（type 1 diabetes mellitus,T1DM）是胰岛β细胞被破坏而导致胰岛素绝对缺乏所致。T1DM绝大多数属于自身免疫性疾病,由遗传及环境因素共同参与其发病过程。儿童糖尿病95%以上为T1DM。近年来儿童T1DM发病率呈现逐年上升趋势。研究表明肠道菌群与儿童T1DM的发病密切相关,T1DM儿童肠道菌群分布失调,肠道菌群可能通过影响肠道免疫系统和改变肠壁通透性来参与T1DM的发病过程。动物实验的研究中,改变肠道菌群分布和应用益生菌可以预防和延缓T1DM的发病。干预肠道菌群是否会预防、延缓儿童T1DM的发生尚需要进一步的研究,希望干预肠道菌群能为预防和治疗儿童T1DM提供新的方向。     

基于肠道菌群探讨七味白术散改善胰岛素抵抗的机制

七味白术散由人参、木香、白茯苓、炒白术、藿香叶、葛根、甘草七味药组成, 具有健脾益气、和胃生津的功效, 是中医治疗糖尿病气阴两虚证的代表方剂。现代药理学研究表明, 七味白术散可以通过调节肠道微生态平衡和促进黏膜再生, 杀灭有害菌群, 促进有益菌群的增殖。而肠道菌群是现代治疗胰岛素抵抗的新靶点。肠道菌群控制并增强内源性胰高血糖素肽2(GLP-2)的产生, 从而通过GLP-2依赖机制改善肠道屏障功能, 有助于改善肥胖和糖尿病患者的肠道屏障功能。因此, 总结近年来七味白术散作用机制的研究以及调节肠道菌群治疗胰岛素抵抗的研究, 以期为改善2型糖尿病胰岛素抵抗提供新的思路与参考。

     

基于肠道菌群探讨高脂饮食在慢性便秘中的作用及机制

慢性便秘是一种患病率高、治疗困难的功能性肠道疾病。许多患者临床治疗效果差,生活质量显著降低。近年来的研究认为慢性便秘的发生发展与肠道菌群失调有关。饮食结构是影响肠道菌群组成的主要因素,已有研究发现高脂饮食可引起肠道菌群失调,进而导致慢性便秘的发生,但具体机制尚未完全阐明。本文从5-羟色胺、短链脂肪酸和慢性肠道炎症等几个方面综述高脂饮食通过影响肠道菌群引起慢性便秘的作用及机制,以期通过精准的饮食干预调节肠道菌群,达到预防和治疗慢性便秘的目的。

     

痛风与肠道菌群相关性的研究进展

痛风是一种嘌呤代谢紊乱导致的炎症性疾病,表现为尿酸升高、阵发性关节肿痛、痛风结石形成和关节畸形等,严重影响患者的工作及生活质量。随着生活方式的改变,痛风的患病率不断升高。嘌呤代谢障碍和炎症通路异常在痛风的发病机制中起主要作用。研究表明痛风会引起肠道菌群的改变,肠道菌群不仅能够影响嘌呤代谢或调节炎症,还能够影响药物对痛风的治疗效果。因此本综述从肠道菌群调节嘌呤代谢、炎症反应及药物作用等方面,分析肠道菌群在痛风发病及治疗中的作用及功能,有助于阐明痛风与肠道菌群的相关性,为更好地诊治痛风提供新思路。

     

Empagliflozin ameliorates type 2 diabetes mellitus-related diabetic nephropathy via altering the gut microbiota

BackgroundThe dysregulation of gut microbiota can be found in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)-related diabetic nephropathy (DN). Inhibitors of sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) were reported to affect gut microbiota. This study aimed to identify whether empagliflozin (EMPA) attenuated DN via regulating gut microbiota.Materials and methodsThe high-fat diet (HFD) combining streptozocin (STZ) injection was performed to induce DN in mice. The therapeutic effects of EMPA were observed by staining of renal tissues and urine albumin/creatinine ratio (UACR). Mouse feces were collected for 16S rRNA sequencing. Fecal short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and fecal and serum lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were determined. An antibiotic-ablated model was established to confirm the role of the gut microbiota in the actions of EMPA.ResultsEMPA reduced the elevation of blood glucose and UACR caused by HFD/STZ. It inhibited the thickening of the colonic crypt and restored goblet cells and the expressions of ZO-1 and Occludin. The 16S rRNA sequencing showed that the diversity of gut microbiota was reduced after HFD/STZ treatment, while it was restored after EMPA treatment. The LPS-producing bacteria, Oscillibacter, and the SCFA-producing bacteria, Bateroid and Odoribacter, were changed after EMPA administration. The therapeutic effects of EMPA on ABX-treated mice were reduced. Meanwhile, the level of fecal SCFAs was decreased, while the levels of fecal and serum LPS were elevated, in T2DM mice, and they were negated by the administration of EMPA.ConclusionEMPA ameliorates T2DM-related DN via altering the gut microbiota, especially reducing LPS-producing bacteria and increasing SCFA-producing bacteria.     

Moderate exercise ameliorates osteoarthritis by reducing lipopolysaccharides from gut microbiota in mice

Lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) released by gut microbiota are correlated with the pathophysiology of osteoarthritis (OA). Exercise remodels the composition of gut microbiota. The present study investigated the hypothesis that wheel-running exercise prevents knee OA induced by high-fat diet (HFD) via reducing LPS from intestinal microorganisms. Male C57BL/6 J mice were treated with sedentary or wheel-running exercise, standard diet (13.5% kcal) or HFD (60% kcal), berberine or not according to their grouping. Knee OA severity, blood and synovial fluid LPS, cecal microbiota, and TLR4 and MMP-13 expression levels were determined. Our findings reveal that HFD treatment decreased gut microbial diversity. Increase in endotoxin-producing bacteria, decrease in gut barrier-protecting bacteria, high LPS levels in the blood and synovial fluid, high TLR4 and MMP-13 expression levels, and severe cartilage degeneration were observed. By contrast, voluntary wheel running caused high gut microbial diversity. The gut microbiota were reshaped, LPS levels in the blood and synovial fluid and TLR4 and MMP-13 expression levels were low, and cartilage degeneration was ameliorated. Berberine treatment reduced LPS levels in the samples, but decreased the diversity of intestinal flora with similar changes to that caused by HFD. In conclusion, unlike taking drugs, exercising can remodel gut microbial ecosystems, reduce the circulating levels of LPS, and thereby contribute to the relief of chronic inflammation and OA. Our findings showed that moderate exercise is a potential therapeutic approach for preventing and treating obesity-related OA.     

Amelioration of hyperglycaemia and hyperlipidaemia by adjusting the interplay between gut microbiota and bile acid metabolism: Radix Scutellariae as a case

BackgroundOur previous clinical research showed that the interaction between gut microbiota and bile acids (BAs) in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) changed significantly. We hypothesized that T2DM could be improved by adjusting this interaction mediated by farnesoid X receptor (FXR). T2DM belongs to the category of “xiaoke” in traditional Chinese medicine. Radix scutellariae has the effects of clearing away heat and eliminating dampness, curing jaundice and quenching thirst and is widely used alone or in combination with other medicines for the treatment of T2DM in China and throughout Asia. Additionally, the interaction between Radix scutellariae and gut microbiota may influence its efficacy in the treatment of T2DM.PurposeThis study chose Radix scutellariae to validate that T2DM could improve by adjusting the interaction between gut microbiota and bile acid metabolism.Study design and methodsRadix scutellariae water extract (WESB) was administered to a T2DM rat model established by a high-fat diet combined with streptozotocin. The body weight and blood glucose and insulin levels were measured. The levels of serum lipids, creatinine, uric acid, albumin and total bile acid were also detected. Changes in the pathology and histology of the pancreas, liver and kidney were observed by haematoxylin-eosin staining. The 16S rRNAs of gut microbiota were sequenced, and the faecal and serum BAs were determined by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The expression levels of BA metabolism-associated proteins in the liver and intestine were evaluated by immunoblot analysis.ResultsThe results showed that WESB improved hyperglycaemia, hyperlipaemia, and liver and kidney damage in T2DM rats. In addition, the abundances of key gut microbiota and the concentrations of certain secondary BAs in faeces and serum were restored. Moreover, there was a significant correlation between the restored gut microbiota and BAs, which might be related to the activation of liver cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) and the inhibition of FXR expression in the intestine rather than the liver.ConclusionsThis study provided new ideas for the prevention or treatment of clinical diabetes and its complications by adjusting the interaction between gut microbiota and bile acid metabolism.     

Traditional Chinese Medicine Ganshuang Granules Attenuate CCl4-Induced Hepatic Fibrosis by Modulating Gut Microbiota

Gut dysbiosis contributes to hepatic fibrosis. Emerging evidence revealed the major role of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in gut microbiota homeostasis. Here, we aimed to investigate the anti-fibrotic activity and underlying mechanism of ganshuang granules (GS), particularly regarding gut microbiota homeostasis. CCl₄-induced hepatic fibrosis models were allocated into 4 groups receiving normal saline (model), 1.0, 2.0, or 4.0 g/kg GS for 5 weeks. As result, GS treatment alleviated liver injury in CCl₄-induced hepatic fibrosis, presenting as decreases of the liver index, alanine aminotransferase, and aspartate transaminase. Histological staining and expression revealed that the enhanced oxidative stress, inflammatory and hepatic fibrosis in CCl₄-induced models were attenuated by GS. Immunohistochemical staining showed that tight junction-associated proteins in intestinal mucosa were up-regulated by GS. 16S rRNA sequencing showed that GS rebalanced the gut dysbiosis manifested as improving alpha and beta diversity of gut microbiota, reducing the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes, and regulating the relative abundance of various bacteria. In summary, GS decreased the intestinal permeability and rebalanced the gut microbiota to reduce the oxidative stress and inflammation, eventually attenuating CCl₄-induced hepatic fibrosis.     

Effect of traditional Chinese medicine on gut microbiota in adults with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BackgroundDespite advances in research on type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) with the development of science and technology, the pathogenesis and treatment response of T2DM remain unclear. Recent studies have revealed a significant role of the microbiomein the development of T2DM, and studies have found that the gut microbiota may explain the therapeutic effect of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), a primary branch of alternative and complementary medicine, in the treatment of T2DM. The aim of this study was to systematically review all randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on TCM for gut microbiota to assess the effectiveness and safety of TCM in T2DM patients.MethodsAll RCTs investigating the effects of TCM interventions on modulating gut microbiota and improving glucose metabolism in the treatment of T2DM adults were included. Meta-analyses were conducted when sufficient data were available, other results were reported narratively. The study protocol was pre-specified, documented, and published in PROSPERO (registration no. CRD42020188043).ResultsFive studies met the eligibility criteria ofthe systematic review. All five studies reported the effects of TCM interventions on the gut microbiota modulation and blood glucose control. There were statistically significant improvements in HbA1c (mean difference [MD]: -0.69%; [95% CI −0.24, −0.14]; p = 0.01, I² = 86%), fasting blood glucose (MD: −0.87 mmol/l; [95% CI -1.26, -0.49]; p < 0.00001, I² = 75%) and 2-h postprandial blood glucose(MD: -0.83mmol/l; [95% CI: -1.01, -0.65]; p < 0.00001, I² = 0%). In addition, there were also statistically significant improvements in homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) (standardized mean difference [SMD]: −0.99, [95% CI −1.25 to -0.73]; p < 0.00001, I² = 0%) and homeostasis model assessment of β-cell function (HOMA-β) (SMD: 0.54, [95% CI 0.21 to 0.87]; p = 0.001, I² = 0%).There was a significant change in the relative abundance of bacteria in the genera Bacteroides (standardized mean difference [SMD] 0.87%; [95% CI 0.58, 1.16], however, the change in Enterococcus abundance was not statistically significant (SMD: -1.71%; [95% CI: -3.64, 0.23]; p = 0.08) when comparing TCM supplementaltreatment with comparator groups. Other changes in the gut microbiota, including changes in the relative abundances of some probiotics and opportunistic pathogens at various taxon levels, and changes in diversity matrices (α and β), were significant by narrative analysis. However, insufficient evidences were found to support that TCM intervention had an effect on inflammation.ConclusionTCM had the effect of modulating gut microbiota and improving glucose metabolisms in T2DM patients. Although the results of the included studies are encouraging, further well-conducted studies on TCM interventions targeting the gut microbiota are needed.     

Putative Mechanisms Underlying the Beneficial Effects of Polyphenols in Murine Models of Metabolic Disorders in Relation to Gut Microbiota

The beneficial effects of polyphenols on metabolic disorders have been extensively reported. The interaction of these compounds with the gut microbiota has been the focus of recent studies. In this review, we explored the fundamental mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of polyphenols in relation to the gut microbiota in murine models of metabolic disorders. We analyzed the effects of polyphenols on three murine models of metabolic disorders, namely, models of a high-fat diet (HFD)-induced metabolic disorder, dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis, and a metabolic disorder not associated with HFD or DSS. Regardless of the model, polyphenols ameliorated the effects of metabolic disorders by alleviating intestinal oxidative stress, improving inflammatory status, and improving intestinal barrier function, as well as by modulating gut microbiota, for example, by increasing the abundance of short-chain fatty acid-producing bacteria. Consequently, polyphenols reduce circulating lipopolysaccharide levels, thereby improving inflammatory status and alleviating oxidative imbalance at the lesion sites. In conclusion, polyphenols likely act by regulating intestinal functions, including the gut microbiota, and may be a safe and suitable therapeutic agent for various metabolic disorders.     

益生菌在血糖调控中的作用

随着经济及生活水平的提高，营养过剩导致营养代谢疾病中2型糖尿病（type 2 diabetes mellitus，T2DM）发生率骤增。患者血糖升高及并发症严重降低生活质量，增加经济负担。现行降糖药存在局限性和副作用，而益生菌具有安全、经济和有效等特点，并且能够降血糖和减轻并发症等。益生菌在糖尿病预防、治疗和重塑肠道微生态健康方面具有良好的应用前景，逐渐成为糖尿病防治的研究热点。虽然益生菌有望攻克糖尿病，但是调控血糖的机制需要更加深入的研究。本文综述了益生菌调控血糖的应用及机制研究、发展趋势与前景及挑战，为调控血糖微生态制剂的开发提供理论基础。