Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone and thyrotropin-releasing hormone in human and bovine milk

Two hypothalamic peptide hormones, luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), have been isolated from human milk and bovine colostrum. Acidified methanolic extracts, prepared from human milk, bovine colostrum and rat hypothalami, as well as synthetic LHRH and TRH markers were subjected to high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). The eluates were tested for the presence of LHRH and TRH by specific radioimmunoassays. It was found that milk extracts contain significant amounts of LHRH (3.9 - 11.8 ng/ml) and TRH (0.16 - 0.34 ng/ml), which comigrate with the corresponding marker hormones and with those of hypothalamic origin. The HPLC-purified LHRH from both human and bovine milk was bioactive in a dose-response manner similar to synthetic LHRH.     

GnRH相关肽在大鼠垂体前叶的细胞学定位

本研究应用特异性抗GnRH相关肽(GAP)N端11个氨基酸的抗血清和六种垂体前叶激素的抗血清,通过免疫组织化学双重染色技术观察GAP在大鼠垂体前叶细胞的定位。结果发现,GAP样免疫反应性物质存在于LH细胞和FSH细胞,而未见于GH、PRL、TSH和ACTH细胞。本文首次证明GAP存在于正常大鼠垂体促性腺激素细胞,为GAP调节LH和FSH的分泌提供了形态学证据;也支持GAP的功能序列在其分子的N端,或GAP进一步裂解出N端片段而发挥作用。     

The GnRH precursor is present in the anterior pituitary gland and an important increase of its content precedes serum LH surge induced by estradiol-17 beta in female primates

Estradiol-17 beta (E2 17 beta) is well known to evoke a preovulatory-like LH surge in ovariectomized monkeys even in the absence of the integrity of the hypothalamo-pituitary connections. LH release from the anterior pituitary (AP) is reliant on stimulation by hypothalamic GnRH which is derived from proteolytic cleavage of a precursor (designated Pro-GnRH-GAP) which also results in the production of an associated peptide (GAP). The present study examined the effects of E2 17 beta on the hypothalamic content of Pro-GnRH-GAP, GnRH and GAP while incidental observations revealed the presence of Pro-GnRH-GAP and its products in the AP. Changes in GnRH and GAP were closely related at all times after E2 17 beta treatment. However, the pattern of change in the hypothalamus and AP was inversely related. Pro-GnRH-GAP levels remained unchanged in the hypothalamus whereas in the AP the peptide increased markedly (48 hrs. post E2 17 beta) prior to the LH surge and declined to low levels (72 hrs. post E2 17 beta) at the time of the LH surge. The increase in Pro-GnRH-GAP in the AP that precedes the rise in GnRH and accompanying LH surge by 24 hrs. strongly indicates that AP GnRH is more important than hypothalamic GnRH for the mediation of the E2 17 beta-induced LH surge in female primate.     

Analysis of ultrashort feedback regulation in human placenta: synthesis and secretion of GnRH by human trophoblastic cells.

BACKGROUND: Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) presumably controls placental growth and functions by autocrine/paracrine mechanisms, and is therefore an important part of the neuroendocrine network in human placenta. AIM: Our earlier work had indicated that GnRH was expressed in human placenta; in extension to these findings, we wanted to analyse synthesis and release of GnRH by trophoblastic cells. GnRH-associated peptide, co-linearly synthesised with GnRH, was used as indicator of actual peptide synthesis. METHOD: First, we immunised rabbits with lipopeptides containing partial sequences of GnRH-associated peptide (GAP) and developed antibodies for immunohistochemical staining. Second, we set up a competitive enzyme immunoassay to measure GnRH: Non-biotinylated GnRH, GnRH analogues or trophoblastic cell culture supernatants were used to inhibit binding of biotinylated des-pGlu1-GnRH to a monoclonal anti-GnRH antibody. RESULTS: a) Placental sections stained positive for GAP in the layers of trophoblastic cells. b) GnRH could be detect by a competitive EIA in supernatants of placental cultures in concentrations between 200 and 5 nM. CONCLUSIONS: GnRH is synthesised and released by trophoblastic cells.     

Processing enzyme specificity is a consequence of pro-hormone precursor protein conformation.

Peptide-hormones are synthesized as higher molecular weight, precursor proteins which must initially undergo limited endoproteolysis to yield the bioactive peptide(s). The ability of two different endoproteinases, gonadotropin-associated peptide (GAP)-releasing enzyme and atrial granule serine proteinase (which are likely to be the physiologically relevant processing enzymes of bovine hypothalamic pro-gonadotropin-releasing hormone/gonadotropin-associated peptide and bovine pro-atrial natriuretic factor precursor proteins, respectively), to act at their own recognition sequences within their relevant pro-hormone proteins has now been contrasted with their ability to act at the recognition sequence for the alternate enzyme or to act at their own recognition sequence when it is placed within the protein framework of the alternate precursor protein. The results show that each enzyme acts with specificity at its own recognition sequence even when it is placed within the framework of the alternate pro-hormone. However, the enzymes fail to act (or act in a non-specific manner) at the alternate recognition sequence even if it is placed within the peptide framework of its own pro-hormone protein. Thus, despite the fact that both recognition sequences are similar in sequence and residue composition and that both contain a doublet of basic amino acids, it appears that sequence and the local conformation assumed by the processing site within the pro-hormone protein are essential for each endoproteinase to act with fidelity. As part of our continuing work, we now also report several newly determined physicochemical properties of hypothalamic GAP-releasing enzyme, the processing enzyme of pro-gonadotropin-releasing hormone/GAP protein.     

The delineation of a decapeptide gonadotropin-releasing sequence in the carboxyl-terminal extension of the human gonadotropin-releasing hormone precursor

The human gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) precursor consists of the GnRH sequence followed by a 59-amino acid carboxyl-terminal extension. A 56-amino acid peptide within this extension has been shown to stimulate gonadotropin release, and this activity has been localized to its amino-terminal region. A series of seven overlapping peptide fragments corresponding to the first 24 amino acids of the carboxyl-extension of the GnRH precursor were synthesized and tested for their ability to stimulate luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone release from cultured human anterior pituitary cells. All active peptide fragments were found to incorporate the decapeptide sequence Asn-Leu-Ile-Asp-Ser-Phe-Gln-Glu-Ile-Val which is regarded as a minimal structural requirement delineated for gonadotropin-releasing activity. A further flanking sequence extending this active region from its carboxyl terminus was found to enhance gonadotropin-releasing activity although the flanking sequence itself was inactive. The gonadotropin release stimulated by the active peptides wa shown to be a dose- dependent, specific, and calcium-dependent phenomenon which occurred independently of the GnRH receptor on the pituitary gonadotrophs as a GnRH antagonist did not inhibit activity.     

GnRH-prohormone-containing neurons in the primate brain: immunostaining for the GnRH-associated peptide

The structure of the prohormone for mammalian gonadotropin releasing hormone (proGnRH) includes the GnRH decapeptide followed by a 56 amino acid GnRH-associated peptide (GAP). In this study, we compared immunostaining of brain neurons and fibers for GAP and GnRH in fetal rhesus monkeys and juvenile baboons. We used antisera against different portions of human and rat GAP (proGnRH 14-24, proGnRH 40-53, and proGnRH 52-66) or against GnRH and the PAP technique. Liquid phase absorption with GAP or GnRH confirmed the specificity of these antisera. Major accumulations of GAP immunoreactive (GAP+) perikarya occurred in the medial septal and preoptic areas and the nucleus of the diagonal band of Broca (44.6% in rhesus, 49.6% in baboon), supraoptic region including the area dorsal to the optic tract (21.9% in rhesus, 23.0% in baboon), and the medial basal hypothalamus (15.7% in rhesus, 16.4% in baboon), especially at the infundibular lip. Occasional cell bodies were scattered throughout the hypothalamic and forebrain regions studied. GAP+ fibers were widely distributed, but formed well-defined pathways such as the periventricular and ventral hypothalamic tract. In addition, GAP+ nerve terminals with various densities occurred in the lamina terminalis, the zona externa of the infundibulum, and behind the infundibular stalk. Fetal rhesus macaques had more GAP+ cell bodies, denser fiber networks, and more distinct pathways than juvenile baboons. However, fiber and terminal immunostaining was somewhat less intense for GAP than GnRH in comparable regions. These results indicate that proGnRH (GAP) is present in the same population of neurons as GnRH in the primate brain. They also suggest that post-translational products of proGnRH are present in perikarya, axons and terminals, and that GnRH and GAP and/or further cleavage products are consecreted into hypophysial portal blood in the primate.     

Primary structure of two forms of gonadotropin-releasing hormone from brains of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)

Two forms of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) have been purified from brains of the American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis, using reverse-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). The concentration of total GnRH was 8.8 ng/g of frozen brain tissue or 21.1 ng per brain. The amino acid sequence of each form of GnRH was determined using automated Edman degradation. The presence of the N-terminal pGlu residue was established by digestion studies with bovine pyroglutamyl aminopeptidase and coelution with synthetic forms of the native peptide. The primary structure of alligator GnRH I is pGlu-His-Trp-Ser-Tyr-Gly-Leu-Gln-Pro-Gly-NH2 and alligator GnRH II is pGlu-His-Trp-Ser-His-Gly-Trp-Tyr-Pro-Gly-NH2.     

PHI--a new brain-gut peptide

The detection of the C-terminal amide structure in porcine intestinal extracts has led to the discovery of a 27 amino acid residue peptide designated PHI (PHI-27, peptide HI). The peptide was found to have structural homologies to vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and growth hormone-releasing factor (GRF). Subsequent studies have revealed that PHI exhibits a variety of biological activities which resemble those of VIP. Moreover, it was found that the peptide is able to inhibit the binding of VIP to its receptors, and to stimulate cyclic AMP production. PHI is present in both brain and gut in high concentrations and probably acts as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator rather than a hormone. A comparison of the amino acid sequences of porcine, human and bovine PHI indicated that human PHI differs from the porcine peptide in two positions (12 and 27), and bovine PHI differs in one position (10). The amino acid sequence (deduced from the cDNA sequence) of the VIP precursor recently obtained from human neuroblastoma cells also contains an identical sequence to the newly-isolated human PHI from human colonic extracts. PHI has thus been shown to be co-synthesized with VIP in the same precursor molecule.     

Cloning and characterization of cDNAs encoding the GnRH1 and GnRH2 precursors from bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana)

We have isolated the cDNAs encoding the GnRH1 and GnRH2 precursors, respectively, from bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) brain. The first cDNA consists of 648 bp and contains an open-reading frame of 270 nucleotides, encoding the bullfrog GnRH1 precursor. The second cDNA consists of 1053 bp and contains an open-reading frame of 255 nucleotides, encoding the bullfrog GnRH2 precursor. Both types of bullfrog GnRH precursor have a similar molecular architecture as observed in other GnRH precursors, consisting of a signal peptide, followed by the GnRH decapeptide, a conserved carboxy-terminal amidation and proteolytical processing site, and a GnRH-associated peptide (GAP). In addition, we have identified a third cDNA, containing 24 additional nucleotides in its GAP-coding region. Genomic PCR and sequence analysis confirmed that this cDNA represents an alternative splice variant of the bullfrog GnRH2-precursor pre-mRNA. The bullfrog GnRH1 precursor exhibits 60% and less than 40% amino acid identity to its Xenopus and mammalian counterparts, respectively, whereas the bullfrog GnRH2 precursor displays 50% to 60% amino acid identity to that of its nonmammalian counterparts, but shares only 25% amino acid identity with its mammalian counterparts. Northern blot analysis revealed a single GnRH1-precursor mRNA species of approximately 0.75 kilobases, expressed in bullfrog forebrain, and a single GnRH2-precursor mRNA species of approximately 1.1 kilobases, expressed in bullfrog midbrain/hindbrain. Furthermore, both bullfrog GnRH-precursor mRNAs exhibited a differential spatiotemporal expression pattern. Genomic Southern blot analysis indicated that both bullfrog GnRH genes are present as single copy genes. This is the first report on the molecular cloning of a GnRH2-precursor cDNA from an amphibian species. In addition, we present data showing that alternative splicing is utilized to generate different GnRH2-precursor mRNAs. J. Exp. Zool. 289:190-201, 2001.     

"Joining peptide" of pro-opiomelanocortin. II. Interspecies heterogeneity of the joining peptide fragment

The use of an antiserum raised against the joining peptide sequence -23 to -14 of bovine pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) enabled the detection of related immunoreactive sequences of peptides in bovine, porcine, mouse and guinea-pig pituitaries, as well as in mouse brain and cerebral cortex, guinea-pig cerebral cortex, and bovine hypothalamus. Gel chromatography of pituitary extracts (Sephadex G-75 and Bio-Gel P-4) indicated the presence of several immunoreactive joining peptide fragments ranging in the molecular weight range (Mr) of 1,500 to 2,300. Furthermore, high molecular weight (Mr greater than 22,500) immunoreactive-precursor from bovine anterior pituitary was readily digested with trypsin into an immunoreactive fragment of approximately Mr 1,500. Analyses of these immunoreactive peptides by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) led to their resolution into six distinct peptides. The only apparent correspondence in the elution profiles of immunoreactive peptide profiles between different mammalian species was the identification of a similar fragment (Mr 2,000) from bovine and guinea-pig pituitaries. Thus, we conclude that immunoreactivity to the joining peptide region of POMC from various mammalian species exhibits a degree of heterogeneity in its composition. The relatively low levels of immunoreactivity in comparison to that of ACTH also suggest that the joining peptide domain may be further processed. The hormonal status of the joining peptide region remains to be determined.     

Immunocytochemical localization of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone-associated peptide portion of the LHRH precursor in the hypothalamus and extrahypothalamic regions of the rat central nervous system

Summary The gonadotropin-releasing hormone-associated peptide (GAP) of the LHRH precursor and the decapeptide LHRH were localized in the rat brain by immunocytochemistry in 12 to 18-day-old animals, by use of thick Vibratome sections and nickel intensification of the diaminobenzidinereaction product. Our results indicate that the GAP portion of the LHRH precursor is present in the same population of neurons that contain LHRH in the rat brain. An important difference observed was that the GAP antiserum, in contrast to LHRH antisera, stained several perikarya in the medial basal hypothalamus. GAP-immunoreactive perikarya were observed in the following regions: the olfactory bulb and tubercle, diagonal band of Broca, medial septum, medial preoptic and suprachiasmatic areas, anterior and lateral hypothalamus, and several regions of the hippocampus. In addition to the preoptico-terminal and the septopreoptico-infundibular pathways, we also observed GAPimmunopositive processes in several major tracts and areas of the brain, including the amygdala, stria terminalis, stria medullaris thalami, fasciculus retroflexus, stria longitudinalis medialis, periventricular plexus, periaqueductal gray of the mesencephalon and extra-cerebral regions, such as the nervus terminalis and its associated ganglion. These results confirm the specificity of previous immunocytochemical results obtained with antisera to LHRH. The presence of GAP immunoreactivity in nerve terminals of the rat brain indicates that GAP or a GAP-like peptide is located in the proper site to serve as a hypophysiotropic substance and/or as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator.Supported by AKA No. 419427, OTKA No. 104, OKKFT 2.1.5.1 and NSF No. INT-8602688     

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone in ratfish (Hydrolagus colliei): distribution between the sexes and possible relationship with chicken II and salmon II forms

1. Brain extract from the spotted ratfish, Hydrolagus colliei, contains gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-like peptides in both sexes. 2. The dominant form occurs with a concentration of 0.5-1.7 ng/g frozen brain tissue in males, and 1.3-2.5 ng/g in females. 3. A similar pattern of GnRH immunoreactivity and chromatographic behaviour are found in both sexes. 4. A semipurified extract of this peptide could not be distinguished chromatographically from either chicken II or salmon II forms of the peptide. 5. The ratfish represents the most primitive organism that contains a form of GnRH that coelutes with chicken II and salmon II GnRH.     

鲤鱼sGnRH基因克隆及其在成熟个体的表达分析

采用RACE方法,从鲤鱼脑组织克隆了两个差异的sGnRH(salmon GnRH[Trp^7Leu^8]GnRH)cDNAs,即cDNA1和cDNA2,其长度分别为393和478bp。两个cDNAs都包括一个285bp开放阅读框,编码的sGnRH前体为94个氨基酸残基,由一个信号肽、sGnRH十肽和一个由蛋白水解位点(Gly-Lys-Arg)连接的促性腺激素释放激素相关肽共3部分组成。用内含子捕获得到相应的两个差异sGnRH基因,即sGnRH genel和gene2,其基本结构都包括4个外显子和3个内含子,3个内含子的核苷酸相似性分别为71．1％、76．1％和88．0％。鲤鱼sGnRH cDNAs及基因的基本结构和编码特点与已报道的不同形式GnRH cDNAs和GnRH基因相似,由此推测所有类型的GnRH可能来自一个共同的祖分子。Southern杂交进一步证实鲤鱼基因组存在两个不同的sGnRH基因座位。相对定量RT-PCR检测发现,两个sGnRH基因除在精巢的表达存在差异外,在脑区、垂体和成熟卵巢共表达。其中两个sGnRH基因在端脑和下丘脑的表达水平明显高于后脑区。根据sGnRH mRNAs在多个脑区、性腺和垂体的共存推测,sGnRH可能对鲤鱼下丘脑-垂体-性腺轴的调节有至关重要作用,同时可能起神经调节剂或自分泌和旁分泌调节因子的作用。     

Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) and gonadotropin inhibitory hormone (GnIH) in the songbird hippocampus: Regional and sex differences in adult zebra finches

Hypothalamic gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) and gonadotropin inhibitory hormone (GnIH) are vital to reproduction in all vertebrates. These neuropeptides are also present outside of the hypothalamus, but the roles of extra-hypothalamic GnRH and GnIH remain enigmatic and widely underappreciated. We used immunohistochemistry and PCR to examine whether multiple forms of GnRH (chicken GnRH-I (GnRH1), chicken GnRH-II (GnRH2) and lamprey GnRH-III (GnRH4)) and GnIH are present in the hippocampus (Hp) of adult zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata). Using immunohistochemistry, we provide evidence that GnRH1, GnRH2 and GnRH4 are present in hippocampal cell bodies and/or fibers and that GnIH is present in hippocampal fibers only. There are regional differences in hippocampal GnRH immunoreactivity, and these vary across the different forms of GnRH. There are also sex differences in hippocampal GnRH immunoreactivity, with generally more GnRH1 and GnRH2 in the female Hp. In addition, we used PCR to examine the presence of GnRH1 mRNA and GnIH mRNA in micropunches of Hp. PCR and subsequent product sequencing demonstrated the presence of GnRH1 mRNA and the absence of GnIH mRNA in the Hp, consistent with the pattern of immunohistochemical results. To our knowledge, this is the first study in any species to systematically examine multiple forms of GnRH in the Hp or to quantify sex or regional differences in hippocampal GnRH. Moreover, this is the first demonstration of GnIH in the avian Hp. These data shed light on an important issue: the sites of action and possible functions of GnRH and GnIH outside of the HPG axis.     

Total solid-phase synthesis and prolactin-inhibiting activity of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone precursor protein and the gonadotropin-releasing hormone associated peptide.

The human gonadotropin-releasing hormone precursor protein, pHGnRH (Met-23-Ile69) (preproGnRH), and three of its fragment peptides, pHGnRH (Asp14-Ile69) (gonadotropin-releasing hormone associated peptide--GAP), pHGnRH (Phe38-Ile69), and pHGnRH (Ser47-Ile69), were assembled in a stepwise solid-phase cosynthesis employing Boc/Bzl tactics and an optimized acylation schedule which included recoupling steps with hexafluoro-2-propanol to help overcome the aggregation of the pendant peptide chains of the peptidoresin during difficult couplings. Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) purification yielded products which were characterized by analytical reversed-phase HPLC, ion-exchange chromatography, capillary zone electrophoresis, SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and ion-spray mass spectrometry to reveal a high degree of homogeneity. Biological characterization demonstrated that only GAP stimulated luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone release from primary cultures of rat anterior pituitary cells, while GAP, pHGnRH (Phe38-Ile69), and preproGnRH all inhibited prolactin release, with the latter being the most potent at concentrations comparable to bromocryptine. However, only GAP and pHGnRH (Phe38-Ile69) were able to displace a labeled gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist from binding to rat pituitary membrane preparations. This first demonstration of significant biological activity with a precursor protein also suggests that the gonadotropin-releasing and prolactin release-inhibiting functions of GAP are not mediated through the same pituitary receptors.     

Antibodies obtained by xenotransplantation of organ-cultured median eminence specifically recognize hypothalamic tanycytes

Tanycytes are specialized ependymal cells lining the infundibular recess of the third ventricle of the cerebrum. Early and recent investigations involve tanycytes in the mechanism of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release to the portal blood. The present investigation was performed to obtain a specific immunological marker of tanycytes and to identify the compound(s) responsible for this labeling. After 30 days of organ culture, explants of bovine median eminence formed spherical structures mostly constituted by tanycytes. These tanycyte spheres were xenotransplanted to rats, and the antibodies raised by the host animals against the transplanted living tanycytes were used for immunochemical studies of the bovine and rat median eminence. This antiserum immunoreacted with two compounds of 60 kDa and 85 kDa present in extracts of bovine and rat median eminence. The individual immunoblotting analysis of rat medial basal hypothalami showed a decrease in the amount of the 85-kDa compound in castrated rats as compared to control rats processed at oestrus and dioestrus. The antiserum, labeled as anti-P85, when used for immunostaining of sections throughout the rat central nervous system, immunoreacted specifically with the hypothalamic tanycytes. Within tanycytes, P-85 immunoreactivity was exclusively present in the basal processes. It is suggested that the 85-kDa and 60-kDa compounds correspond to two novel proteins selectively expressed by tanycytes. The possibility that they are secretory proteins involved in GnRH release is discussed. Anti-P85 appears to be the first specific marker of hypothalamic tanycytes.