ENU mutagenesis in mice identifies candidate genes for hypogonadism

Genome-wide mutagenesis was performed in mice to identify candidate genes for male infertility, for which the predominant causes remain idiopathic. Mice were mutagenized using N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU), bred, and screened for phenotypes associated with the male urogenital system. Fifteen heritable lines were isolated and chromosomal loci were assigned using low-density genome-wide SNP arrays. Ten of the 15 lines were pursued further using higher-resolution SNP analysis to narrow the candidate gene regions. Exon sequencing of candidate genes identified mutations in mice with cystic kidneys (Bicc1), cryptorchidism (Rxfp2), restricted germ cell deficiency (Plk4), and severe germ cell deficiency (Prdm9). In two other lines with severe hypogonadism, candidate sequencing failed to identify mutations, suggesting defects in genes with previously undocumented roles in gonadal function. These genomic intervals were sequenced in their entirety and a candidate mutation was identified in SnrpE in one of the two lines. The line harboring the SnrpE variant retains substantial spermatogenesis despite small testis size, an unusual phenotype. In addition to the reproductive defects, heritable phenotypes were observed in mice with ataxia (Myo5a), tremors (Pmp22), growth retardation (unknown gene), and hydrocephalus (unknown gene). These results demonstrate that the ENU screen is an effective tool for identifying potential causes of male infertility.     

Targeted Exon Sequencing Successfully Discovers Rare Causative Genes and Clarifies the Molecular Epidemiology of Japanese Deafness Patients

Target exon resequencing using Massively Parallel DNA Sequencing (MPS) is a new powerful strategy to discover causative genes in rare Mendelian disorders such as deafness. We attempted to identify genomic variations responsible for deafness by massive sequencing of the exons of 112 target candidate genes. By the analysis of 216randomly selected Japanese deafness patients (120 early-onset and 96 late-detected), who had already been evaluated for common genes/mutations by Invader assay and of which 48 had already been diagnosed, we efficiently identified causative mutations and/or mutation candidates in 57 genes. Approximately 86.6% (187/216) of the patients had at least one mutation. Of the 187 patients, in 69 the etiology of the hearing loss was completely explained. To determine which genes have the greatest impact on deafness etiology, the number of mutations was counted, showing that those in GJB2 were exceptionally higher, followed by mutations in SLC26A4, USH2A, GPR98, MYO15A, COL4A5 and CDH23. The present data suggested that targeted exon sequencing of selected genes using the MPS technology followed by the appropriate filtering algorithm will be able to identify rare responsible genes including new candidate genes for individual patients with deafness, and improve molecular diagnosis. In addition, using a large number of patients, the present study clarified the molecular epidemiology of deafness in Japanese. GJB2 is the most prevalent causative gene, and the major (commonly found) gene mutations cause 30–40% of deafness while the remainder of hearing loss is the result of various rare genes/mutations that have been difficult to diagnose by the conventional one-by-one approach. In conclusion, target exon resequencing using MPS technology is a suitable method to discover common and rare causative genes for a highly heterogeneous monogenic disease like hearing loss.     

Forward genetics and map-based cloning approaches

Whereas reverse genetics strategies seek to identify and select mutations in a known sequence, forward genetics requires the cloning of sequences underlying a particular mutant phenotype. Map-based cloning is tedious, hampering the quick identification of candidate genes. With the unprecedented progress in the sequencing of whole genomes, and perhaps even more with the development of saturating marker technologies, map-based cloning can now be performed so efficiently that, at least for some plant model systems, it has become feasible to identify some candidate genes within a few months. This, in turn, will boost the use of forward genetics approaches, as applied (for example) to isolating genes involved in natural variation and genes causing phenotypic mutations as derived from (second-site) mutagenesis screens.     

Use of Targeted Exome Sequencing in Genetic Diagnosis of Chinese Familial Hypercholesterolemia

Familial hypercholesterolemia is an autosomal dominant inherited disease characterized by elevated plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). It is mainly caused by mutations of the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) gene. Currently, the methods of whole genome sequencing or whole exome sequencing for screening mutations in familial hypercholesterolemia are not applicable in China due to high cost. We performed targeted exome sequencing of 167 genes implicated in the homozygous phenotype of a proband pedigree to identify candidate mutations, validated them in the family of the proband, studied the functions of the mutant protein, and followed up serum lipid levels after treatment. We discovered that exon 9 c.1268 T>C and exon 8 c.1129 T>G compound heterozygous mutations in the LDLR gene in the proband derived from the mother and father, respectively, in which the mutation of c.1129 T>G has not been reported previously. The mutant LDL-R protein had 57% and 52% binding and internalization functions, respectively, compared with that of the wild type. After 6 months of therapy, the LDL-C level of the proband decreased by more than 50% and the LDL-C of the other family members with heterozygous mutation also reduced to normal. Targeted exome sequencing is an effective method for screening mutation genes in familial hypercholesterolemia. The exon 8 and 9 mutations of the LDLR gene were pedigree mutations. The functions of the mutant LDL-R protein were decreased significantly compared with that of the wild type. Simvastatin plus ezetimibe was proven safe and effective in this preschool-age child.     

Screening of indigenous goats for prolificacy associated DNA markers of sheep

The present study was undertaken to explore the genetic basis of caprine prolificacy and to screen indigenous goats for prolificacy associated markers of sheep in BMPR1B, GDF9 and BMP15 genes. To detect the associated mutations and identify novel allelic variants in the candidate genes, representative samples were collected from the breeding tract of indigenous goat breeds varying in prolificacy and geographic distribution. DNA was extracted and PCR amplification was done using primers designed or available in literature for the coding DNA sequence of candidate genes. Direct sequencing was done to identify the genetic variations. Mutations in the candidate genes associated with fecundity in sheep were not detected in Indian goats. Three non-synonymous SNPs (C818T, A959C and G1189A) were identified in exon 2 of GDF9 gene out of which mutation A959C has been associated with prolificacy in exotic goats. Two novel SNPs (G735A and C808G) were observed in exon 2 of BMP15 gene.     

Identification of EMS-Induced Mutations in Drosophila melanogaster by Whole-Genome Sequencing

Next-generation methods for rapid whole-genome sequencing enable the identification of single-base-pair mutations in Drosophila by comparing a chromosome bearing a new mutation to the unmutagenized sequence. To validate this approach, we sought to identify the molecular lesion responsible for a recessive EMS-induced mutation affecting egg shell morphology by using Illumina next-generation sequencing. After obtaining sufficient sequence from larvae that were homozygous for either wild-type or mutant chromosomes, we obtained high-quality reads for base pairs composing ~70% of the third chromosome of both DNA samples. We verified 103 single-base-pair changes between the two chromosomes. Nine changes were nonsynonymous mutations and two were nonsense mutations. One nonsense mutation was in a gene, encore, whose mutations produce an egg shell phenotype also observed in progeny of homozygous mutant mothers. Complementation analysis revealed that the chromosome carried a new functional allele of encore, demonstrating that one round of next-generation sequencing can identify the causative lesion for a phenotype of interest. This new method of whole-genome sequencing represents great promise for mutant mapping in flies, potentially replacing conventional methods.     

Identification of embryonic lethal genes in humans by autozygosity mapping and exome sequencing in consanguineous families

BackgroundIdentifying genetic variants that lead to discernible phenotypes is the core of Mendelian genetics. An approach that considers embryonic lethality as a bona fide Mendelian phenotype has the potential to reveal novel genetic causes, which will further our understanding of early human development at a molecular level. Consanguineous families in which embryonic lethality segregates as a recessive Mendelian phenotype offer a unique opportunity for high throughput novel gene discovery as has been established for other recessive postnatal phenotypes.ResultsWe have studied 24 eligible families using autozygosity mapping and whole-exome sequencing. In addition to revealing mutations in genes previously linked to embryonic lethality in severe cases, our approach revealed seven novel candidate genes (THSD1, PIGC, UBN1, MYOM1, DNAH14, GALNT14, and FZD6). A founder mutation in one of these genes, THSD1, which has been linked to vascular permeability, accounted for embryonic lethality in three of the study families. Unlike the other six candidate genes, we were able to identify a second mutation in THSD1 in a family with a less severe phenotype consisting of hydrops fetalis and persistent postnatal edema, which provides further support for the proposed link between this gene and embryonic lethality.ConclusionsOur study represents an important step towards the systematic analysis of “embryonic lethal genes” in humans.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13059-015-0681-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Exome Analysis of Two Limb-Girdle Muscular Dystrophy Families: Mutations Identified and Challenges Encountered

The molecular diagnosis of muscle disorders is challenging: genetic heterogeneity (>100 causal genes for skeletal and cardiac muscle disease) precludes exhaustive clinical testing, prioritizing sequencing of specific genes is difficult due to the similarity of clinical presentation, and the number of variants returned through exome sequencing can make the identification of the disease-causing variant difficult. We have filtered variants found through exome sequencing by prioritizing variants in genes known to be involved in muscle disease while examining the quality and depth of coverage of those genes. We ascertained two families with autosomal dominant limb-girdle muscular dystrophy of unknown etiology. To identify the causal mutations in these families, we performed exome sequencing on five affected individuals using the Agilent SureSelect Human All Exon 50 Mb kit and the Illumina HiSeq 2000 (2×100 bp). We identified causative mutations in desmin (IVS3+3A>G) and filamin C (p.W2710X), and augmented the phenotype data for individuals with muscular dystrophy due to these mutations. We also discuss challenges encountered due to depth of coverage variability at specific sites and the annotation of a functionally proven splice site variant as an intronic variant.     

A Novel Missense SNRNP200 Mutation Associated with Autosomal Dominant Retinitis Pigmentosa in a Chinese Family

The SNRNP200 gene encodes hBrr2, a helicase essential for pre-mRNA splicing. Six mutations in SNRNP200 have recently been discovered to be associated with autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa (adRP). In this work, we analyzed a Chinese family with adRP and identified a novel missense mutation in SNRNP200. To identify the genetic defect in this family, exome of the proband was captured and sequencing analysis was performed to exclude known genetic defects and find possible pathogenic mutations. Subsequently, candidate mutations were validated in affected family members using Sanger sequencing. A novel missense mutation, c.2653C>G transition (p.Q885E), in exon 20 of SNRNP200 was identified. The mutation co-segregated with the disease phenotype over four generations and was absent in 100 normal unaffected individuals. This mutation occurs at highly conserved position in hBrr2 and is predicted to have a functional impact, suggesting that hBrr2-dependent small nuclear riboproteins (snRNPs) unwinding and spliceosome activation is important in the pathogenesis of some variants of RP.     

Genomic analysis identifies candidate pathogenic variants in 9 of 18 patients with unexplained West syndrome

West syndrome, which is narrowly defined as infantile spasms that occur in clusters and hypsarrhythmia on EEG, is the most common early-onset epileptic encephalopathy (EOEE). Patients with West syndrome may have clear etiologies, including perinatal events, infections, gross chromosomal abnormalities, or cases followed by other EOEEs. However, the genetic etiology of most cases of West syndrome remains unexplained. DNA from 18 patients with unexplained West syndrome was subjected to microarray-based comparative genomic hybridization (array CGH), followed by trio-based whole-exome sequencing in 14 unsolved families. We identified candidate pathogenic variants in 50 % of the patients (n = 9/18). The array CGH revealed candidate pathogenic copy number variations in four cases (22 %, 4/18), including an Xq28 duplication, a 16p11.2 deletion, a 16p13.1 deletion and a 19p13.2 deletion disrupting CACNA1A. Whole-exome sequencing identified candidate mutations in known epilepsy genes in five cases (36 %, 5/14). Three candidate de novo mutations were identified in three cases, with two mutations occurring in two new candidate genes (NR2F1 and CACNA2D1) (21 %, 3/14). Hemizygous candidate mutations in ALG13 and BRWD3 were identified in the other two cases (14 %, 2/14). Evaluating a panel of 67 known EOEE genes failed to identify significant mutations. Despite the heterogeneity of unexplained West syndrome, the combination of array CGH and whole-exome sequencing is an effective means of evaluating the genetic background in unexplained West syndrome. We provide additional evidence for NR2F1 as a causative gene and for CACNA2D1 and BRWD3 as candidate genes for West syndrome.     

Discovery of Candidate Disease Genes in ENU–Induced Mouse Mutants by Large-Scale Sequencing,Including a Splice-Site Mutation in Nucleoredoxin

An accurate and precisely annotated genome assembly is a fundamental requirement for functional genomic analysis. Here, the complete DNA sequence and gene annotation of mouse Chromosome 11 was used to test the efficacy of large-scale sequencing for mutation identification. We re-sequenced the 14,000 annotated exons and boundaries from over 900 genes in 41 recessive mutant mouse lines that were isolated in an N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) mutation screen targeted to mouse Chromosome 11. Fifty-nine sequence variants were identified in 55 genes from 31 mutant lines. 39% of the lesions lie in coding sequences and create primarily missense mutations. The other 61% lie in noncoding regions, many of them in highly conserved sequences. A lesion in the perinatal lethal line l11Jus13 alters a consensus splice site of nucleoredoxin (Nxn), inserting 10 amino acids into the resulting protein. We conclude that point mutations can be accurately and sensitively recovered by large-scale sequencing, and that conserved noncoding regions should be included for disease mutation identification. Only seven of the candidate genes we report have been previously targeted by mutation in mice or rats, showing that despite ongoing efforts to functionally annotate genes in the mammalian genome, an enormous gap remains between phenotype and function. Our data show that the classical positional mapping approach of disease mutation identification can be extended to large target regions using high-throughput sequencing.     

Mannosyltransferase is required for cell wall biosynthesis, morphology and control of asexual development in Neurospora crassa

Two Neurospora mutants with a phenotype that includes a tight colonial growth pattern, an inability to form conidia and an inability to form protoperithecia have been isolated and characterized. The relevant mutations were mapped to the same locus on the sequenced Neurospora genome. The mutations responsible for the mutant phenotype then were identified by examining likely candidate genes from the mutant genomes at the mapped locus with PCR amplification and a sequencing assay. The results demonstrate that a map and sequence strategy is a feasible way to identify mutant genes in Neurospora. The gene responsible for the phenotype is a putative alpha-1,2-mannosyltransferase gene. The mutant cell wall has an altered composition demonstrating that the gene functions in cell wall biosynthesis. The results demonstrate that the mnt-1 gene is required for normal cell wall biosynthesis, morphology and for the regulation of asexual development.     

Whole-exome sequencing in Tricho-rhino-phalangeal syndrome (TRPS) type I in a Korean family

Tricho-rhino-phalangeal syndrome (TRPS) is a rare autosomal dominant and monogenic disease. Among three types of TRPS, it is known that TRPS type I and type III are caused by deletions or substitutions in the TRPS1 gene, located on chromosome 8 (8q23.3). Although the mutations in TRPS1 gene are responsible for human TRPS, some cases are not detected by the mutations of TRPS1 gene and several cases are presented with different genetic variations. The present case was a sporadic and without TRPS1 mutation. Therefore, we performed whole-exome sequencing (WES) with one patient and his family (father, mother, and brother) and validated novel mutations using PCR and Sanger sequencing. Through family-based WES, we found the two de novo mutations such as ZNF 134 and EXD 3 genes. Through functional effect prediction using disease association Ensembl database, we propose that the de novo mutation of ZNF134 (p.Ser207Arg) could be one of potential candidate genes for causing TRPS and develope the TRPS phenotype in the present case.     

Genome Sequencing of Autism-Affected Families Reveals Disruption of Putative Noncoding Regulatory DNA

We performed whole-genome sequencing (WGS) of 208 genomes from 53 families affected by simplex autism. For the majority of these families, no copy-number variant (CNV) or candidate de novo gene-disruptive single-nucleotide variant (SNV) had been detected by microarray or whole-exome sequencing (WES). We integrated multiple CNV and SNV analyses and extensive experimental validation to identify additional candidate mutations in eight families. We report that compared to control individuals, probands showed a significant (p = 0.03) enrichment of de novo and private disruptive mutations within fetal CNS DNase I hypersensitive sites (i.e., putative regulatory regions). This effect was only observed within 50 kb of genes that have been previously associated with autism risk, including genes where dosage sensitivity has already been established by recurrent disruptive de novo protein-coding mutations (ARID1B, SCN2A, NR3C2, PRKCA, and DSCAM). In addition, we provide evidence of gene-disruptive CNVs (in DISC1, WNT7A, RBFOX1, and MBD5), as well as smaller de novo CNVs and exon-specific SNVs missed by exome sequencing in neurodevelopmental genes (e.g., CANX, SAE1, and PIK3CA). Our results suggest that the detection of smaller, often multiple CNVs affecting putative regulatory elements might help explain additional risk of simplex autism.     

Exome Sequencing Identifies Rare Deleterious Mutations in DNA Repair Genes FANCC and BLM as Potential Breast Cancer Susceptibility Alleles

Despite intensive efforts using linkage and candidate gene approaches, the genetic etiology for the majority of families with a multi-generational breast cancer predisposition is unknown. In this study, we used whole-exome sequencing of thirty-three individuals from 15 breast cancer families to identify potential predisposing genes. Our analysis identified families with heterozygous, deleterious mutations in the DNA repair genes FANCC and BLM, which are responsible for the autosomal recessive disorders Fanconi Anemia and Bloom syndrome. In total, screening of all exons in these genes in 438 breast cancer families identified three with truncating mutations in FANCC and two with truncating mutations in BLM. Additional screening of FANCC mutation hotspot exons identified one pathogenic mutation among an additional 957 breast cancer families. Importantly, none of the deleterious mutations were identified among 464 healthy controls and are not reported in the 1,000 Genomes data. Given the rarity of Fanconi Anemia and Bloom syndrome disorders among Caucasian populations, the finding of multiple deleterious mutations in these critical DNA repair genes among high-risk breast cancer families is intriguing and suggestive of a predisposing role. Our data demonstrate the utility of intra-family exome-sequencing approaches to uncover cancer predisposition genes, but highlight the major challenge of definitively validating candidates where the incidence of sporadic disease is high, germline mutations are not fully penetrant, and individual predisposition genes may only account for a tiny proportion of breast cancer families.     

High-Throughput Discovery of Mutations in Tef Semi-Dwarfing Genes by Next-Generation Sequencing Analysis

Tef (Eragrostis tef) is a major cereal crop in Ethiopia. Lodging is the primary constraint to increasing productivity in this allotetraploid species, accounting for losses of ∼15–45% in yield each year. As a first step toward identifying semi-dwarf varieties that might have improved lodging resistance, an ∼6× fosmid library was constructed and used to identify both homeologues of the dw3 semi-dwarfing gene of Sorghum bicolor. An EMS mutagenized population, consisting of ∼21,210 tef plants, was planted and leaf materials were collected into 23 superpools. Two dwarfing candidate genes, homeologues of dw3 of sorghum and rht1 of wheat, were sequenced directly from each superpool with 454 technology, and 120 candidate mutations were identified. Out of 10 candidates tested, six independent mutations were validated by Sanger sequencing, including two predicted detrimental mutations in both dw3 homeologues with a potential to improve lodging resistance in tef through further breeding. This study demonstrates that high-throughput sequencing can identify potentially valuable mutations in under-studied plant species like tef and has provided mutant lines that can now be combined and tested in breeding programs for improved lodging resistance.     

Development and application of a next-generation-sequencing (NGS) approach to detect known and novel gene defects underlying retinal diseases

Background

Inherited retinal disorders are clinically and genetically heterogeneous with more than 150 gene defects accounting for the diversity of disease phenotypes. So far, mutation detection was mainly performed by APEX technology and direct Sanger sequencing of known genes. However, these methods are time consuming, expensive and unable to provide a result if the patient carries a new gene mutation. In addition, multiplicity of phenotypes associated with the same gene defect may be overlooked.

Methods

To overcome these challenges, we designed an exon sequencing array to target 254 known and candidate genes using Agilent capture. Subsequently, 20 DNA samples from 17 different families, including four patients with known mutations were sequenced using Illumina Genome Analyzer IIx next-generation-sequencing (NGS) platform. Different filtering approaches were applied to identify the genetic defect. The most likely disease causing variants were analyzed by Sanger sequencing. Co-segregation and sequencing analysis of control samples validated the pathogenicity of the observed variants.

Results

The phenotype of the patients included retinitis pigmentosa, congenital stationary night blindness, Best disease, early-onset cone dystrophy and Stargardt disease. In three of four control samples with known genotypes NGS detected the expected mutations. Three known and five novel mutations were identified in NR2E3, PRPF3, EYS, PRPF8, CRB1, TRPM1 and CACNA1F. One of the control samples with a known genotype belongs to a family with two clinical phenotypes (Best and CSNB), where a novel mutation was identified for CSNB. In six families the disease associated mutations were not found, indicating that novel gene defects remain to be identified.

Conclusions

In summary, this unbiased and time-efficient NGS approach allowed mutation detection in 75% of control cases and in 57% of test cases. Furthermore, it has the possibility of associating known gene defects with novel phenotypes and mode of inheritance.     

Exome-Based Mapping and Variant Prioritization for Inherited Mendelian Disorders

Exome sequencing in families affected by rare genetic disorders has the potential to rapidly identify new disease genes (genes in which mutations cause disease), but the identification of a single causal mutation among thousands of variants remains a significant challenge. We developed a scoring algorithm to prioritize potential causal variants within a family according to segregation with the phenotype, population frequency, predicted effect, and gene expression in the tissue(s) of interest. To narrow the search space in families with multiple affected individuals, we also developed two complementary approaches to exome-based mapping of autosomal-dominant disorders. One approach identifies segments of maximum identity by descent among affected individuals; the other nominates regions on the basis of shared rare variants and the absence of homozygous differences between affected individuals. We showcase our methods by using exome sequence data from families affected by autosomal-dominant retinitis pigmentosa (adRP), a rare disorder characterized by night blindness and progressive vision loss. We performed exome capture and sequencing on 91 samples representing 24 families affected by probable adRP but lacking common disease-causing mutations. Eight of 24 families (33%) were revealed to harbor high-scoring, most likely pathogenic (by clinical assessment) mutations affecting known RP genes. Analysis of the remaining 17 families identified candidate variants in a number of interesting genes, some of which have withstood further segregation testing in extended pedigrees. To empower the search for Mendelian-disease genes in family-based sequencing studies, we implemented them in a cross-platform-compatible software package, MendelScan, which is freely available to the research community.     

Mutations in SPAG1 Cause Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia Associated with Defective Outer and Inner Dynein Arms

Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) is a genetically heterogeneous, autosomal-recessive disorder, characterized by oto-sino-pulmonary disease and situs abnormalities. PCD-causing mutations have been identified in 20 genes, but collectively they account for only ∼65% of all PCDs. To identify mutations in additional genes that cause PCD, we performed exome sequencing on three unrelated probands with ciliary outer and inner dynein arm (ODA+IDA) defects. Mutations in SPAG1 were identified in one family with three affected siblings. Further screening of SPAG1 in 98 unrelated affected individuals (62 with ODA+IDA defects, 35 with ODA defects, 1 without available ciliary ultrastructure) revealed biallelic loss-of-function mutations in 11 additional individuals (including one sib-pair). All 14 affected individuals with SPAG1 mutations had a characteristic PCD phenotype, including 8 with situs abnormalities. Additionally, all individuals with mutations who had defined ciliary ultrastructure had ODA+IDA defects. SPAG1 was present in human airway epithelial cell lysates but was not present in isolated axonemes, and immunofluorescence staining showed an absence of ODA and IDA proteins in cilia from an affected individual, thus indicating that SPAG1 probably plays a role in the cytoplasmic assembly and/or trafficking of the axonemal dynein arms. Zebrafish morpholino studies of spag1 produced cilia-related phenotypes previously reported for PCD-causing mutations in genes encoding cytoplasmic proteins. Together, these results demonstrate that mutations in SPAG1 cause PCD with ciliary ODA+IDA defects and that exome sequencing is useful to identify genetic causes of heterogeneous recessive disorders.