Measurement of CD8+ and CD4+ T Cell Frequencies Specific for EBV LMP1 and LMP2a Using mRNA-Transfected DCs

An EBV-specific cellular immune response is associated with the control of EBV-associated malignancies and lymphoproliferative diseases, some of which have been successfully treated by adoptive T cell therapy. Therefore, many methods have been used to measure EBV-specific cellular immune responses. Previous studies have mainly used autologous EBV-transformed B-lymphoblastoid cell lines (B-LCLs), recombinant viral vectors transfected or peptide pulsed dendritic cells (DCs) as stimulators of CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T lymphocytes. In the present study, we used an interferon-γ (IFN-γ) enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT) assay by using isolated CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cells stimulated with mRNA-transfected DCs. The frequency of latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1)-specific IFN-γ producing CD4⁺ T cells was significantly higher than that of LMP2a. The frequency of IFN-γ producing CD4⁺ T cells was significantly correlated with that of CD8⁺ T cells in LMP1-specific immune responses (r = 0.7187, Pc < 0.0001). To determine whether there were changes in LMP1- or LMP2a-specific immune responses, subsequent peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) samples were analyzed. Significant changes were observed in 5 of the 10 donors examined, and CD4⁺ T cell responses showed more significant changes than CD8⁺ T cell responses. CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cells from EBV-seropositive donors secreted only the Th1 cytokines IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-2, while Th2 (IL-4) and Th17 (IL-17a) cytokines were not detected. CD4⁺ T cells secreted significantly higher cytokine levels than did CD8⁺ T cells. Analysis of EBV-specific T cell responses using autologous DCs transfected with mRNA might provide a comprehensive tool for monitoring EBV infection and new insights into the pathogenesis of EBV-associated diseases.     

Experimental Murine Fascioliasis Derives Early Immune Suppression with Increased Levels of TGF-�� and IL-4

In fascioliasis, T-helper 2 (Th2) responses predominate, while little is known regarding early immune phenomenon. We herein analyzed early immunophenotype changes of BALB/c, C57BL/6, and C3H/He mice experimentally infected with 5 Fasciola hepatica metacercariae. A remarkable expansion of CD19⁺ B cells was observed as early as week 1 post-infection while CD4⁺/CD8⁺ T cells were down-regulated. Accumulation of Mac1⁺ cells with time after infection correlated well with splenomegaly of all mice strains tested. The expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α mRNA in splenocytes significantly decreased while that of IL-4 up-regulated. IL-1β expression was down-modulated in BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice, but not in C3H/He. Serum levels of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β were considerably elevated in all mice during 3 weeks of infection period. These collective results suggest that experimental murine fascioliasis might derive immune suppression with elevated levels of TGF-β and IL-4 during the early stages of infection.     

Induced Expression of FcγRIIIa (CD16a) on CD4+ T Cells Triggers Generation of IFN-γhigh Subset

Whether or not CD4⁺ T-cells express low affinity receptor FcγRIIIa (CD16a) in disease pathology has not been examined in great detail. In this study, we show that a subset of activated CD4⁺ T-cells in humans express FcγRIIIa. The ligation of FcγRIIIa by immune complexes (ICs) in human CD4⁺ T-cells produced co-stimulatory signal like CD28 that triggered IFN-γ production. The induced expression of FcγRIIIa on CD4⁺ helper T-cells is an important finding since these receptors via ITAM contribute to intracellular signaling. The induced expression of FcγRIIIa on CD4⁺ T helper cells and their ability to co-stimulate T-cell activation are important and novel findings that may reveal new pathways to regulate adaptive immune responses during inflammation and in autoimmunity.     

FcRγ Controls the Fas-Dependent Regulatory Function of Lymphoproliferative Double Negative T Cells

Patients with autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome (ALPS) and lymphoproliferation (LPR) mice are deficient in Fas, and accumulate large numbers of αβ-TCR⁺, CD4⁻, CD8⁻ double negative (DN) T cells. The function of these DN T cells remains largely unknown. The common γ subunit of the activating Fc receptors, FcRγ, plays an important role in mediating innate immune responses. We have shown previously that a significant proportion of DN T cells express FcRγ, and that this molecule is required for TCR transgenic DN T cells to suppress allogeneic immune responses. Whether FcRγ plays a critical role in LPR DN T cell-mediated suppression of immune responses to auto and allo-antigens is not known. Here, we demonstrated that FcRγ⁺, but not FcRγ⁻ LPR DN T cells could suppress Fas⁺ CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell proliferation in vitro and attenuated CD4⁺ T cell-mediated graft-versus host disease. Although FcRγ expression did not allow LPR DN T cells to inhibit the expansion of Fas-deficient cells within the LPR context, adoptive transfer of FcRγ⁺, but not FcRγ⁻, DN T cells inhibited lymphoproliferation in generalized lymphoproliferative disease (GLD) mice. Furthermore, FcRγ acted in a cell-intrinsic fashion to limit DN T cell accumulation by increasing the rate of apoptosis in proliferated cells. These results indicate that FcRγ can confer Fas-dependent regulatory properties on LPR DN T cells, and suggest that FcRγ may be a novel marker for functional DN Tregs.     

A bivalent CMV vaccine formulated with human compatible TLR9 agonist CpG1018 elicits potent cellular and humoral immunity in HLA expressing mice

There is now convincing evidence that the successful development of an effective CMV vaccine will require improved formulation and adjuvant selection that is capable of inducing both humoral and cellular immune responses. Here, we have designed a novel bivalent subunit vaccine formulation based on CMV-encoded oligomeric glycoprotein B (gB) and polyepitope protein in combination with human compatible TLR9 agonist CpG1018. The polyepitope protein includes multiple minimal HLA class I-restricted CD8⁺ T cell epitopes from different antigens of CMV. This subunit vaccine generated durable anti-viral antibodies, CMV-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell responses in multiple HLA expressing mice. Antibody responses included broad T_H1 isotypes (IgG2a, IgG2b and IgG3) and potently neutralized CMV infection in fibroblasts and epithelial cells. Furthermore, polyfunctional antigen-specific T cell immunity and antiviral antibody responses showed long-term memory maintenance. These observations argue that this novel vaccine strategy, if applied to humans, could facilitate the generation of robust humoral and cellular immune responses which may be more effective in preventing CMV-associated complications in various clinical settings.     

Immune Responses in Acute and Convalescent Patients with Mild,Moderate and Severe Disease during the 2009 Influenza Pandemic in Norway

Increased understanding of immune responses influencing clinical severity during pandemic influenza infection is important for improved treatment and vaccine development. In this study we recruited 46 adult patients during the 2009 influenza pandemic and characterized humoral and cellular immune responses. Those included were either acute hospitalized or convalescent patients with different disease severities (mild, moderate or severe). In general, protective antibody responses increased with enhanced disease severity. In the acute patients, we found higher levels of TNF-α single-producing CD4⁺T-cells in the severely ill as compared to patients with moderate disease. Stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from a subset of acute patients with peptide T-cell epitopes showed significantly lower frequencies of influenza specific CD8⁺ compared with CD4⁺ IFN-γ T-cells in acute patients. Both T-cell subsets were predominantly directed against the envelope antigens (HA and NA). However, in the convalescent patients we found high levels of both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cells directed against conserved core antigens (NP, PA, PB, and M). The results indicate that the antigen targets recognized by the T-cell subsets may vary according to the phase of infection. The apparent low levels of cross-reactive CD8⁺ T-cells recognizing internal antigens in acute hospitalized patients suggest an important role for this T-cell subset in protective immunity against influenza.     

Cooperation between CD4+ T Cells and Humoral Immunity Is Critical for Protection against Dengue Using a DNA Vaccine Based on the NS1 Antigen

Dengue virus (DENV) is spread through most tropical and subtropical areas of the world and represents a serious public health problem. At present, the control of dengue disease is mainly hampered by the absence of antivirals or a vaccine, which results in an estimated half worldwide population at risk of infection. The immune response against DENV is not yet fully understood and a better knowledge of it is now recognized as one of the main challenge for vaccine development. In previous studies, we reported that a DNA vaccine containing the signal peptide sequence from the human tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) fused to the DENV2 NS1 gene (pcTPANS1) induced protection against dengue in mice. In the present work, we aimed to elucidate the contribution of cellular and humoral responses elicited by this vaccine candidate for protective immunity. We observed that pcTPANS1 exerts a robust protection against dengue, inducing considerable levels of anti-NS1 antibodies and T cell responses. Passive immunization with anti-NS1 antibodies conferred partial protection in mice infected with low virus load (4 LD₅₀), which was abrogated with the increase of viral dose (40 LD₅₀). The pcTPANS1 also induced activation of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells. We detected production of IFN-γ and a cytotoxic activity by CD8⁺ T lymphocytes induced by this vaccine, although its contribution in the protection was not so evident when compared to CD4⁺ cells. Depletion of CD4⁺ cells in immunized mice completely abolished protection. Furthermore, transfer experiments revealed that animals receiving CD4⁺ T cells combined with anti-NS1 antiserum, both obtained from vaccinated mice, survived virus infection with survival rates not significantly different from pcTPANS1-immunized animals. Taken together, results showed that the protective immune response induced by the expression of NS1 antigen mediated by the pcTPANS1 requires a cooperation between CD4⁺ T cells and the humoral immunity.     

Tim-3-Expressing CD4+ and CD8+ T Cells in Human Tuberculosis (TB) Exhibit Polarized Effector Memory Phenotypes and Stronger Anti-TB Effector Functions

T-cell immune responses modulated by T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-containing molecule 3 (Tim-3) during Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection in humans remain poorly understood. Here, we found that active TB patients exhibited increases in numbers of Tim-3-expressing CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells, which preferentially displayed polarized effector memory phenotypes. Consistent with effector phenotypes, Tim-3⁺CD4⁺ and Tim-3⁺CD8⁺ T-cell subsets showed greater effector functions for producing Th1/Th22 cytokines and CTL effector molecules than Tim-3⁻ counterparts, and Tim-3-expressing T cells more apparently limited intracellular Mtb replication in macrophages. The increased effector functions for Tim-3-expressing T cells consisted with cellular activation signaling as Tim-3⁺CD4⁺ and Tim-3⁺CD8⁺ T-cell subsets expressed much higher levels of phosphorylated signaling molecules p38, stat3, stat5, and Erk1/2 than Tim-3- controls. Mechanistic experiments showed that siRNA silencing of Tim-3 or soluble Tim-3 treatment interfering with membrane Tim-3-ligand interaction reduced de novo production of IFN-γ and TNF-α by Tim-3-expressing T cells. Furthermore, stimulation of Tim-3 signaling pathways by antibody cross-linking of membrane Tim-3 augmented effector function of IFN-γ production by CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells, suggesting that Tim-3 signaling helped to drive stronger effector functions in active TB patients. This study therefore uncovered a previously unknown mechanism for T-cell immune responses regulated by Tim-3, and findings may have implications for potential immune intervention in TB.     

Interferon-γ Induces Expression of MHC Class II on Intestinal Epithelial Cells and Protects Mice from Colitis

Immune responses against intestinal microbiota contribute to the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and involve CD4⁺ T cells, which are activated by major histocompatibility complex class II (MHCII) molecules on antigen-presenting cells (APCs). However, it is largely unexplored how inflammation-induced MHCII expression by intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) affects CD4⁺ T cell-mediated immunity or tolerance induction in vivo. Here, we investigated how epithelial MHCII expression is induced and how a deficiency in inducible epithelial MHCII expression alters susceptibility to colitis and the outcome of colon-specific immune responses. Colitis was induced in mice that lacked inducible expression of MHCII molecules on all nonhematopoietic cells, or specifically on IECs, by continuous infection with Helicobacter hepaticus and administration of interleukin (IL)-10 receptor-blocking antibodies (anti-IL10R mAb). To assess the role of interferon (IFN)-γ in inducing epithelial MHCII expression, the T cell adoptive transfer model of colitis was used. Abrogation of MHCII expression by nonhematopoietic cells or IECs induces colitis associated with increased colonic frequencies of innate immune cells and expression of proinflammatory cytokines. CD4⁺ T-helper type (Th)1 cells - but not group 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) or Th17 cells - are elevated, resulting in an unfavourably altered ratio between CD4⁺ T cells and forkhead box P3 (FoxP3)⁺ regulatory T (Treg) cells. IFN-γ produced mainly by CD4⁺ T cells is required to upregulate MHCII expression by IECs. These results suggest that, in addition to its proinflammatory roles, IFN-γ exerts a critical anti-inflammatory function in the intestine which protects against colitis by inducing MHCII expression on IECs. This may explain the failure of anti-IFN-γ treatment to induce remission in IBD patients, despite the association of elevated IFN-γ and IBD.     

Recombinant Adeno-Vaccine Expressing Enterovirus 71-Like Particles against Hand,Foot, and Mouth Disease

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) and coxsackieviruses (CV) are the major causative agents of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD). There is not currently a vaccine available against HFMD, even though a newly developed formalin-inactivated EV71 (FI-EV71) vaccine has been tested in clinical trial and has shown efficacy against EV71. We have designed and genetically engineered a recombinant adenovirus Ad-EVVLP with the EV71 P1 and 3CD genes inserted into the E1/E3-deleted adenoviral genome. Ad-EVVLP were produced in HEK-293A cells. In addition to Ad-EVVLP particles, virus-like particles (VLPs) formed from the physical association of EV71 capsid proteins, VP0, VP1, and VP3 expressed from P1 gene products. They were digested by 3CD protease and confirmed to be produced by Ad-EVVLP-producing cells, as determined using transmission electron microscopy and western blotting. Mouse immunogenicity studies showed that Ad-EVVLP-immunized antisera neutralized the EV71 B4 and C2 genotypes. Activation of VLP-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺/IFN-γ T cells associated with Th1/Th2-balanced IFN-ɣ, IL-17, IL-4, and IL-13 was induced; in contrast, FI-EV71 induced only Th2-mediated neutralizing antibody against EV71 and low VLP-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell responses. The antiviral immunity against EV71 was clearly demonstrated in mice vaccinated with Ad-EVVLP in a hSCARB2 transgenic (hSCARB2-Tg) mouse challenge model. Ad-EVVLP-vaccinated mice were 100% protected and demonstrated reduced viral load in both the CNS and muscle tissues. Ad-EVVLP successfully induced anti-CVA16 immunities. Although antisera had no neutralizing activity against CVA16, the 3C-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺/IFN-γ T cells were identified, which could mediate protection against CVA16 challenge. FI-EV71 did not induce 3C-mediated immunity and had no efficacy against the CVA16 challenge. These results suggest that Ad-EVVLP can enhance neutralizing antibody and protective cellular immune responses to prevent EV71 infection and cellular immune responses against CV infection.     

In Vivo Identification and Characterization of CD4+ Cytotoxic T Cells Induced by Virulent Brucella abortus Infection

CD4⁺ T cells display a variety of helper functions necessary for an efficient adaptive immune response against bacterial invaders. This work reports the in vivo identification and characterization of murine cytotoxic CD4⁺ T cells (CD4⁺ CTL) during Brucella abortus infection. These CD4⁺ CTLs express granzyme B and exhibit immunophenotypic features consistent with fully differentiated T cells. They express CD25, CD44, CD62L ,CD43 molecules at their surface and produce IFN-γ. Moreover, these cells express neither the co-stimulatory molecule CD27 nor the memory T cell marker CD127. We show here that CD4⁺ CTLs are capable of cytolytic action against Brucella-infected antigen presenting cells (APC) but not against Mycobacterium-infected APC. Cytotoxic CD4⁺ T cell population appears at early stages of the infection concomitantly with high levels of IFN-γ and granzyme B expression. CD4⁺ CTLs represent a so far uncharacterized immune cell sub-type triggered by early immune responses upon Brucella abortus infection.     

Helminth Infections Coincident with Active Pulmonary Tuberculosis Inhibit Mono- and Multifunctional CD4+ and CD8+ T Cell Responses in a Process Dependent on IL-10

Tissue invasive helminth infections and tuberculosis (TB) are co-endemic in many parts of the world and can trigger immune responses that might antagonize each other. We have previously shown that helminth infections modulate the Th1 and Th17 responses to mycobacterial-antigens in latent TB. To determine whether helminth infections modulate antigen-specific and non-specific immune responses in active pulmonary TB, we examined CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell responses as well as the systemic (plasma) cytokine levels in individuals with pulmonary TB with or without two distinct helminth infections—Wuchereria bancrofti and Strongyloides stercoralis infection. By analyzing the frequencies of Th1 and Th17 CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells and their component subsets (including multifunctional cells), we report a significant diminution in the mycobacterial–specific frequencies of mono- and multi–functional CD4⁺ Th1 and (to a lesser extent) Th17 cells when concomitant filarial or Strongyloides infection occurs. The impairment in CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell cytokine responses was antigen-specific as polyclonal activated T cell frequencies were equivalent irrespective of helminth infection status. This diminution in T cell responses was also reflected in diminished circulating levels of Th1 (IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-2)- and Th17 (IL-17A and IL-17F)-associated cytokines. Finally, we demonstrate that for the filarial co-infections at least, this diminished frequency of multifunctional CD4⁺ T cell responses was partially dependent on IL-10 as IL-10 blockade significantly increased the frequencies of CD4⁺ Th1 cells. Thus, co-existent helminth infection is associated with an IL-10 mediated (for filarial infection) profound inhibition of antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cell responses as well as protective systemic cytokine responses in active pulmonary TB.     

Inhibition of Histo-blood Group Antigen Binding as a Novel Strategy to Block Norovirus Infections

Noroviruses (NoVs) are the most important viral pathogens that cause epidemic acute gastroenteritis. NoVs recognize human histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) as receptors or attachment factors. The elucidation of crystal structures of the HBGA-binding interfaces of a number of human NoVs representing different HBGA binding patterns opens a new strategy for the development of antiviral compounds against NoVs through rational drug design and computer-aided virtual screening methods. In this study, docking simulations and virtual screening were used to identify hit compounds targeting the A and B antigens binding sites on the surface of the capsid P protein of a GII.4 NoV (VA387). Following validation by re-docking of the A and B ligands, these structural models and AutoDock suite of programs were used to screen a large drug-like compound library (derived from ZINC library) for inhibitors blocking GII.4 binding to HBGAs. After screening >2 million compounds using multistage protocol, 160 hit compounds with best predicted binding affinities and representing a number of distinct chemical classes have been selected for subsequent experimental validation. Twenty of the 160 compounds were found to be able to block the VA387 P dimers binding to the A and/or B HBGAs at an IC₅₀<40.0 µM, with top 5 compounds blocking the HBGA binding at an IC₅₀<10.0 µM in both oligosaccharide- and saliva-based blocking assays. Interestingly, 4 of the top-5 compounds shared the basic structure of cyclopenta [a] dimethyl phenanthren, indicating a promising structural template for further improvement by rational design.     

Glycoconjugate Vaccine Containing Escherichia coli O157:H7 O-Antigen Linked with Maltose-Binding Protein Elicits Humoral and Cellular Responses

Glycoconjugate is one of the most efficacious and safest vaccines against bacterial pathogens. Previous studies of glycoconjugates against pathogen E. coli O157:H7 focused more on the humoral responses they elicited. However, little was known about their cellular responses. In this study, we exploited a novel approach based on bacterial protein N-linked glycosylation system to produce glycoconjugate containing Escherichia coli O157:H7 O-antigen linked with maltose-binding protein and examined its humoral and cellular responses in BALB/c mice. The transfer of E. coli O157:H7 O-antigen to MBP was confirmed by western blot and MALDI-TOF MS. Mice injected with glycoconjugate O-Ag-MBP elicited serum bactericidal antibodies including anti-E. coli O157:H7 O-antigen IgG and IgM. Interestingly, O-Ag-MBP also stimulated the secretion of anti-E. coli O157:H7 O-antigen IgA in intestine. In addition, O-Ag-MBP stimulated cellular responses by recruiting Th1-biased CD4⁺ T cells, CD8⁺ T cells. Meanwhile, O-Ag-MBP induced the upregulation of Th1-related IFN-γ and downregulation of Th2-related IL-4, and the upregulation of IFN-γ was stimulated by MBP in a dose-dependent manner. MBP showed TLR4 agonist-like properties to activate Th1 cells as carrier protein of O-Ag-MBP. Thus, glycoconjugate vaccine E. coli O157:H7-specific O-Ag-MBP produced by bacterial protein N-linked glycosylation system was able to elicit both humoral and Th1-biased cellular responses.     

scFv from Antibody That Mimics gp43 Modulates the Cellular and Humoral Immune Responses during Experimental Paracoccidioidomycosis

Paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM), caused by Paracoccidioides species is a prevalent systemic and progressive mycosis that occurs in Latin America. It is caused by Paracoccidioides species. Immunization with dendritic cells transfected with a plasmid encoding the scFv (pMAC/PS-scFv) that mimics the main antigen of P. brasiliensis (gp43) confers protection in experimental PCM. DCs link innate and adaptive immunity by recognizing invading pathogens and selecting the type of effector T cell to mediate the immune response. Here, we showed that DC-pMAC/PS-scFv induces the activation of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells. Moreover, our results demonstrated that BALB/c mice infected with P. brasiliensis and treated with DC-pMAC/PS-scFv showed the induction of specific IgG production against gp43 and IFN-γ, IL-12 and IL-4 cytokines. Analysis of regional lymph nodes revealed increases in the expression of clec7a, myd88, tlr2, gata3 and tbx21, which are involved in the immune response. Taken together, our results indicate that the scFv modulates the humoral and cellular immune responses and presents epitopes to CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells.     

Interleukin-21 Is a Critical Regulator of CD4 and CD8 T Cell Survival during Priming under Interleukin-2 Deprivation Conditions

Optimal T cell activation and expansion require binding of the common gamma-chain (γc) cytokine Interleukin-2 (IL-2) to its cognate receptor that in turn engages a γc/Janus tyrosine kinase (Jak)3 signaling pathway. Because of its restricted expression by antigen-activated T cells and its obligatory role in promoting their survival and proliferation, IL-2 has been considered as a selective therapeutic target for preventing T cell mediated diseases. However, in order to further explore IL-2 targeted therapy, it is critical to precisely understand its role during early events of T cell activation. In this study, we delineate the role of IL-2 and other γc cytokines in promoting the survival of CD4 and CD8 T cells during early phases of priming. Under IL-2 inhibitory conditions (by neutralizing anti-IL-2 mAbs), the survival of activated CD8⁺ T cells was reduced, whereas CD4⁺ T cells remained much more resistant. These results correlated with reduced Bcl-2 expression, and mitochondrial membrane potential in CD8⁺ T cells in comparison to CD4⁺ T cells. However, using transwell co-culture assays we have found that CD4⁺ T cells could rescue the survival of CD8⁺ T cells even under IL-2 deprived conditions via secretion of soluble factors. A cytokine screen performed on CD8⁺ T cells cultured alone revealed that IL-21, another γc cytokine, was capable of rescuing their survival under IL-2 deprivation. Indeed, blocking the IL-21 signaling pathway along with IL-2 neutralization resulted in significantly reduced survival of both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells. Taken together, we have shown that under IL-2 deprivation conditions, IL-21 may act as the major survival factor promoting T cell immune responses. Thus, investigation of IL-2 targeted therapies may need to be revisited to consider blockade of the IL-21 signaling pathways as an adjunct to provide more effective control of T cell immune responses.     

Development of Virus-Specific CD4+ and CD8+ Regulatory T Cells Induced by Human Herpesvirus 6 Infection

Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) is an important immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory virus. The mechanisms by which HHV-6 establishes latency and immunosuppression in its host are not well understood. Here we characterized HHV-6-specific T cells in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from HHV-6-infected donors. Our results showed that HHV-6 infection could induce both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ HHV-6-specific regulatory T (Treg) cells. These HHV-6-specific Treg cells had potent suppressive activity and expressed high levels of Treg-associated molecules CD25, FoxP3, and GITR. Both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ Treg cells secreted gamma interferon (IFN-γ) and interleukin-10 (IL-10) but little or no IL-2, IL-4, or transforming growth factor β (TGF-β). Furthermore, HHV-6-specifc Treg cells not only could suppress naive and HHV-6-specific CD4⁺ effector T cell immune responses but also could impair dendritic cell (DC) maturation and functions. In addition, the suppressive effects mediated by HHV-6-specific Treg cells were mainly through a cell-to-cell contact-dependent mechanism but not through the identified cytokines. These results suggest that HHV-6 may utilize the induction of Treg cells as a strategy to escape antivirus immune responses and maintain the latency and immunosuppression in infected hosts.     

Mycobacterium tuberculosis-Specific IL-21+IFN-γ+CD4+ T Cells Are Regulated by IL-12

In the current study of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB)-specific T and B cells, we found that MTB-specific peptides from early secreted antigenic target-6 (ESAT-6) and culture filtrate protein-10 (CFP-10) induced the expression of IL-21 predominantly in CD4⁺ T cells. A fraction of IL-21-expressing CD4⁺ T cells simultaneously expressed Th1 cytokines but did not secrete Th2 or Th17 cytokines, suggesting that MTB-specific IL-21-expressing CD4⁺ T cells were different from Th1, Th2 and Th17 subpopulations. The majority of MTB-specific IL-21-expressing CD4⁺ T cells co-expressed IFN-γ and IL-21⁺IFN-γ⁺CD4⁺ T cells exhibited obviously polyfunctionality. In addition, MTB-specific IL-21-expressing CD4⁺ T cells displayed a CD45RO⁺CD62L^lowCCR7^lowCD40L^highICOS^high phenotype. Bcl-6-expression was significantly higher in IL-21-expressing CD4⁺ T cells than IL-21^-CD4⁺ T cells. Moreover, IL-12 could up-regulate MTB-specific IL-21 expression, especially the frequency of IL-21⁺IFN-γ⁺CD4⁺ T cells. Taken together, our results demonstrated that MTB-specific IL-21⁺IFN-γ⁺CD4⁺ T cells from local sites of tuberculosis (TB) infection could be enhanced by IL-12, which have the features of both Tfh and Th1 cells and may have an important role in local immune responses against TB infection.