Changes in microclimate induced by experimental warming and clipping in tallgrass prairie

In order to facilitate interpretation and comparison of warming effects on ecosystems across various habitats, it is imperative to quantify changes in microclimate induced by warming facilities. This paper reports observed changes in air temperature, soil temperature and soil‐moisture content under experimental warming and clipping in a tallgrass prairie in the Great Plains, USA. We used a factorial design with warming as the primary factor nested with clipping as the secondary factor. Infrared heater was used in order to simulate climatic warming and clipping to mimic mowing for hay or grazing. The warming treatment significantly increased daily mean and minimum air temperatures by 1.1 and 2.3 °C, respectively, but had no effect on daily maximum air temperature, resulting in reduced diurnal air‐temperature range. Infrared heaters substantially increased daily maximum (2.5 and 3.5 °C), mean (2.0 and 2.6 °C) and minimum (1.8 and 2.1 °C) soil temperatures in both the unclipped and clipped subplots. Clipping also significantly increased daily maximum (3.4 and 4.3 °C) and mean (0.6 and 1.2 °C) soil temperatures, but decreased daily minimum soil temperature (1.0 and 0.6 °C in the control and warmed plots, respectively). Daily maximum, mean and minimum soil temperatures in the clipped, warmed subplots were 6.8, 3.2 and 1.1 °C higher than those in the unclipped, control subplots. Infrared heaters caused a reduction of 11.0% in soil moisture in the clipped subplots, but not in the unclipped subplots. Clipping reduced soil‐moisture content by 17.7 and 22.7% in the control and warmed plots, respectively. Experimental warming and clipping interacted to exacerbate soil‐moisture loss (26.7%). Overall, infrared heaters simulated climate warming well by enhancing downward infrared radiation and by reducing the diurnal air‐temperature range.     

呼伦贝尔地区贝加尔针茅草甸草原土壤CO2排放特征

采用Li-8150多通道土壤碳通量自动观测系统,于2009年6月—2010年6月对呼伦贝尔地区贝加尔针茅草甸草原土壤呼吸进行连续野外观测,分析该地区土壤CO₂通量排放特征.结果表明: 生长季内贝加尔针茅草甸草原土壤呼吸日动态呈单峰曲线,最高值出现在13:00—15:00,最低值出现在5:00—6:00,土壤呼吸呈明显的季节变化,与土壤温度和土壤含水量季节动态相吻合.土壤呼吸与各层土壤温度和土壤含水量关系可以用线性模型和指数-乘幂模型来表示;土壤呼吸与各层土壤温度呈显著的指数回归关系,Q₁₀变化范围分别为1.68～2.14和3.03～3.60,非生长季土壤温度对土壤呼吸的影响更为显著;生长季内土壤呼吸与10 cm土壤含水量呈显著正相关.2009和2010年土壤CO₂年排放量分别为488.47和507.20 g C·m^-2·a^-1,生长季排放量约占年排放量的90%.     

Dynamic and complex microclimate responses to warming and grazing manipulations

Synthesis efforts that identify patterns of ecosystem response to a suite of warming manipulations can make important contributions to climate change science. However, cross‐study comparisons are impeded by the paucity of detailed analyses of how passive warming and other manipulations affect microclimate. Here we document the independent and combined effects of a common passive warming manipulation, open‐top chambers (OTCs), and a simulated widespread land use, clipping, on microclimate on the Tibetan Plateau. OTCs consistently elevated growing season averaged mean daily air temperature by 1.0–2.0°C, maximum daily air temperature by 2.1–7.3°C and the diurnal air temperature range by 1.9–6.5°C, with mixed effects on minimum daily air temperature, and mean daily soil temperature and moisture. These OTC effects on microclimate differ from reported effects of a common active warming method, infrared heating, which has more consistent effects on soil than on air temperature. There were significant interannual and intragrowing season differences in OTC effects on microclimate. For example, while OTCs had mixed effects on growing season averaged soil temperatures, OTCs consistently elevated soil temperature by approximately 1.0°C early in the growing season. Nonadditive interactions between OTCs and clipping were also present: OTCs in clipped plots generally elevated air and soil temperatures more than OTCs in nonclipped plots. Moreover, site factors dynamically interacted with microclimate and with the efficacy of the OTC manipulations. These findings highlight the need to understand differential microclimate effects between warming methods, within warming method across ecosystem sites, within warming method crossed with other treatments, and within sites over various timescales. Methods, sites and scales are potential explanatory variables and covariables in climate warming experiments. Consideration of this variability among and between experimental warming studies will lead to greater understanding and better prediction of ecosystem response to anthropogenic climate warming.     

Soil microbial responses to experimental warming and clipping in a tallgrass prairie

Global surface temperature is predicted to increase by 1.4–5.8°C by the end of this century. However, the impacts of this projected warming on soil C balance and the C budget of terrestrial ecosystems are not clear. One major source of uncertainty stems from warming effects on soil microbes, which exert a dominant influence on the net C balance of terrestrial ecosystems by controlling organic matter decomposition and plant nutrient availability. We, therefore, conducted an experiment in a tallgrass prairie ecosystem at the Great Plain Apiaries (near Norman, OK) to study soil microbial responses to temperature elevation of about 2°C through artificial heating in clipped and unclipped field plots. While warming did not induce significant changes in net N mineralization, soil microbial biomass and respiration rate, it tended to reduce extractable inorganic N during the second and third warming years, likely through increasing plant uptake. In addition, microbial substrate utilization patterns and the profiles of microbial phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs) showed that warming caused a shift in the soil microbial community structure in unclipped subplots, leading to the relative dominance of fungi as evidenced by the increased ratio of fungal to bacterial PLFAs. However, no warming effect on soil microbial community structure was found in clipped subplots where a similar scale of temperature increase occurred. Clipping also significantly reduced soil microbial biomass and respiration rate in both warmed and unwarmed plots. These results indicated that warming‐led enhancement of plant growth rather than the temperature increase itself may primarily regulate soil microbial response. Our observations show that warming may increase the relative contribution of fungi to the soil microbial community, suggesting that shifts in the microbial community structure may constitute a major mechanism underlying warming acclimatization of soil respiration.     

模拟增温对黄河三角洲滨海湿地非生长季土壤呼吸的影响

冬季土壤呼吸能释放生长季所固存的碳, 因而在陆地碳循环中占有重要地位。随着全球气候变暖, 平均地表温度将升高0.3-4.8 ℃, 且冬季增温更加明显, 而温度的升高会促进更多CO₂的释放。另外, 滨海湿地地下水位浅, 淡咸水交互作用明显, 增温能引起土壤表层盐分升高, 从而影响土壤呼吸。该研究以黄河三角洲滨海湿地为研究对象, 采用红外辐射加热器模拟增温, 研究了该地区非生长季土壤呼吸的日动态及季节动态, 同时探讨了土壤呼吸对环境因子的响应机制。结果显示: 日动态中, 增温与对照的土壤呼吸速率变化趋势一致, 为单峰曲线; 在平均日变化中, 整个非生长季不同处理的土壤呼吸速率无显著差异, 而土壤温度和土壤盐分均为增温大于对照, 并且土壤呼吸峰值时间均比土壤温度提前。季节动态中, 整个研究期分为非盐分限制阶段(2014年11月-2015年2月中旬)和盐分限制阶段(2015年2月中旬-2015年4月)。在整个非生长季, 土壤呼吸速率无显著差异; 在非盐分限制阶段, 当10 cm土壤温度升高4.0 ℃时, 土壤呼吸速率显著提高22.9%, 而土壤呼吸温度敏感性系数(Q₁₀)与对照相比有所降低; 在盐分限制阶段, 尽管土壤温度升高3.3 ℃, 土壤呼吸速率却降低了20.7%, 这可能是由于增温引起了土壤盐分的升高, 同时由增温引起的土壤含水量的升高在一定程度上也限制了土壤呼吸, 而此阶段增温对Q₁₀无显著影响。因此, 在滨海湿地中, 增温除了直接影响土壤温度, 还可通过影响土壤水盐状况来影响土壤呼吸, 进而影响滨海湿地土壤碳库。     

Effects of elevated temperature on soil respiration in a coastal wetland during the non- growing season in the Yellow River Delta,China

Aims Winter soil respiration plays a crucial role in terrestrial carbon cycle, which could lose carbon gained in the growing season. With global warming, the average near-surface air temperatures will rise by 0.3 to 4.8 °C. Winter is expected to be warmer obviously than other seasons. Thus, the elevated temperature can significantly affect soil respiration. The coastal wetland has shallow underground water level and is affected by the fresh water and salt water. Elevated temperature can cause the increase of soil salinity, and as a result high salinity can limit soil respiration. Our objectives were to determine the diurnal and seasonal dynamics of soil respiration in a coastal wetland during the non-growing season, and to explore the responses of soil respiration to environmental factors, especially soil temperature and salinity.
Methods A manipulative warming experiment was conducted in a costal wetland in the Yellow River Delta using the infrared heaters. A complete random block design with two treatments, including control and warming, and each treatment was replicated each treatment four times. Soil respiration was measured twice a month during the non-growing season by a LI-8100 soil CO₂ efflux system. The measurements were taken every 2 h for 24 h at clear days. During each soil respiration measurement, soil environmental parameters were determined simultaneously, including soil temperature, moisture and salinity.
Important findings The diurnal variation of soil respiration in the warming plots was closely coupled with that in the control plots, and both exhibited single-peak curves. The daily soil respiration in the warming was higher than that in the control from November 2014 to January 2015. Contrarily, from March to April 2015. During the non-growing seasons, there were no significant differences in the daily mean soil respiration between the two treatments. However, soil temperature and soil salt content in the warming plots were significantly higher than those in the control plots. The non-growing season was divided into the no salt restriction period (November 2014 to middle February 2015) and salt restriction period (middle February 2015 to April 2015). During non-growing season, soil respiration in the warming had no significant difference compared with that in control. During the no salt restriction period, soil respiration in the warming was 22.9% (p < 0.01) greater than the control when soil temperature at 10 cm depth in warming was elevated by 4.0 °C compared with that in control. However, experimental warming decreased temperature sensitivity of soil respiration (Q₁₀). During salt restriction period, soil warming decreased soil respiration by 20.7% compared with the control although with higher temperature (3.3 °C), which may be attributed to the increased soil salt content (Soil electric conductivity increased from 4.4 ds·m^-1 to 5.3 ds·m^-1). The high water content can limit soil respiration in some extent. In addition, the Q₁₀ value in the warming had no significant difference compared with that in control during this period. Therefore, soil warming can not only increase soil respiration by elevating soil temperature, but also decrease soil respiration by increasing soil salt content due to evaporation, which consequently regulating the soil carbon balance of coastal wetlands.     

环境和生物因子对黄河三角洲滨海湿地净生态系统CO2交换的影响

通过涡度相关和微气象观测技术,对黄河三角洲滨海湿地净生态系统CO₂交换(NEE)以及环境、生物因子进行了观测,探究湿地NEE变化规律及环境和生物因子对NEE的影响. 结果表明: 在日尺度上,生长季NEE呈明显“U”型曲线,非生长季变幅较小;在季节尺度上,NEE生长季波动较大,表现为碳汇,非生长季波动较小,表现为碳源;在年尺度上,滨海湿地生态系统表现为碳汇,总净固碳量为-247 g C·m^-2. 白天NEE主要受控于光合有效辐射(PAR),且生态系统表观量子产量(α)与白天生态系统呼吸(R_eco,d)均于8月达到最大值,最大光合速率(A_max)于7月达到最大值;夜间NEE随气温(T_a)呈指数增加趋势,生态系统的温度敏感系数(Q₁₀)为2.5,且土壤含水量(SWC)越高,Q₁₀值越大.非生长季NEE只与净辐射(R_n)呈显著的线性负相关,与其他环境因子无显著相关关系.生长季NEE与R_n、T_a、土壤10 cm温度(T_{s 10})等环境因子以及叶面积指数(LAI)呈显著的线性负相关,但与地上生物量(AGB)无显著相关关系.多元回归分析表明,R_n和LAI对生长季NEE的协同影响达到52%.     

Soil respiration does not acclimatize to warmer temperatures when modeled over seasonal timescales

Soil warming studies have generally demonstrated an ephemeral response of soil respiration to warming suggesting acclimatization to increased temperatures. Many of these studies depict acclimatization as an empirical temperature-respiration model with data collected from late spring through early autumn. We examined the apparent temperature sensitivity of soil respiration in chronically warmed soils over three different timescales: annually, during the growing season, and seasonally during winter, spring, summer, and fall. Temperature sensitivity was evaluated by fitting exponential and flexible temperature functions as mixed effects models. From model coefficients, we estimated annual, growing season, and season-specific Q ₁₀ values, and assessed the ability of model coefficients to predict daily soil respiration rates over a two-year period. We found that respiration in warmed soils can exhibit characteristics of acclimatized temperature sensitivity depending on the timeframe and the function (exponential or flexible) used. Models using growing season data suggested acclimatization while models using data collected in winter or spring indicated enhanced temperature sensitivity with 5 °C of warming. Differences in temperature sensitivity affected predicted daily soil respiration rates, particularly in winter and spring. Models constructed over longer timescales overestimated daily respiration rates by as much 10–40 % whereas season-specific predictions were generally within 2 % of actual values. Failure to use season-specific models to depict changes in temperature dependence may over- or under-estimate carbon losses due to climate warming, especially during the colder months of the year.     

环境和生物因子对黄河三角洲滨海湿地净生态系统CO2交换的影响

通过涡度相关和微气象观测技术,对黄河三角洲滨海湿地净生态系统CO₂交换(NEE)以及环境、生物因子进行了观测,探究湿地NEE变化规律及环境和生物因子对NEE的影响. 结果表明: 在日尺度上,生长季NEE呈明显“U”型曲线,非生长季变幅较小;在季节尺度上,NEE生长季波动较大,表现为碳汇,非生长季波动较小,表现为碳源;在年尺度上,滨海湿地生态系统表现为碳汇,总净固碳量为-247 g C·m^-2. 白天NEE主要受控于光合有效辐射(PAR),且生态系统表观量子产量(α)与白天生态系统呼吸(R_eco,d)均于8月达到最大值,最大光合速率(A_max)于7月达到最大值;夜间NEE随气温(T_a)呈指数增加趋势,生态系统的温度敏感系数(Q₁₀)为2.5,且土壤含水量(SWC)越高,Q₁₀值越大.非生长季NEE只与净辐射(R_n)呈显著的线性负相关,与其他环境因子无显著相关关系.生长季NEE与R_n、T_a、土壤10 cm温度(T_{s 10})等环境因子以及叶面积指数(LAI)呈显著的线性负相关,但与地上生物量(AGB)无显著相关关系.多元回归分析表明,R_n和LAI对生长季NEE的协同影响达到52%.     

增温和刈割对高寒草甸土壤呼吸及其组分的影响

评估土壤呼吸及其组分对增温等全球变化的响应对于预测陆地生态系统碳循环至关重要。本研究利用红外线辐射加热器(Infrared heater)装置在青藏高原高寒草甸生态系统设置增温和刈割野外控制实验。通过测定2018年生长季(5—9月)土壤呼吸和异养呼吸,探究增温和刈割对土壤呼吸及其组分的影响。研究结果表明：(1) 单独增温使土壤呼吸显著增加31.65% (P<0.05),异养呼吸显著增加27.12% (P<0.05),土壤自养呼吸没有显著改变(P>0.05);单独刈割对土壤呼吸和自养呼吸没有显著影响(P>0.05),单独刈割刺激异养呼吸增加32.54% (P<0.05);(2) 增温和刈割之间的交互作用对土壤呼吸和异养呼吸没有显著影响(P>0.05),但是对自养呼吸的影响是显著的(P<0.05),土壤呼吸和异养呼吸的季节效应显著(P<0.05);(3)土壤呼吸及其组分与土壤温度均成显著指数关系,与土壤湿度呈显著的正相关关系(P<0.05),处理影响它们的响应敏感性。本研究表明青藏高原东缘高寒草甸土壤碳排放与气候变暖存在正反馈。     

北京松山天然落叶阔叶林生态系统净碳交换特征及其影响因子

森林生态系统在陆地碳循环过程中发挥着重要作用,关于温带落叶阔叶林生态系统碳平衡过程影响机制的讨论尚未统一。本研究于2019年对北京松山典型落叶阔叶林生态系统的净碳交换量(NEE)及空气温度(T_a)、土壤温度(T_s)、光合有效辐射(PAR)、饱和水气压差(VPD)、土壤含水量(SWC)、降雨量(P)等环境因子进行原位连续监测,分析松山落叶阔叶林生态系统净碳交换特征及其对环境因子的响应。结果表明: 在日尺度上,NEE生长季(5—10月)各月平均日变化均呈“U”字形变化,日间为碳汇,夜间为碳源。其他月份NEE均为正值,变化平缓,表现为碳源。在季节尺度上,NEE呈单峰曲线变化规律,全年NEE为-111 g C·m^-2·a^-1,生态系统呼吸总量(R_e)为555 g C·m^-2·a^-1,总生态系统生产力(GEP)为666 g C·m^-2·a^-1。碳吸收与释放量分别在6月与11月达到最大值。PAR是影响日间净碳交换量(NEE_d)的主导因子,二者关系符合Michaelis-Menten模型,VPD是间接影响NEE_d的主导因子,最适宜日间净碳交换的VPD范围为1～1.5 kPa。土壤温度是影响夜间净碳交换量(NEE_n)的主导因子,SWC是NEE_n的限制因子,SWC过高或过低均会对NEE_n产生抑制,最适值为0.28 m³·m^-3。     

Effects of in situ experimental air warming on the soil respiration in a coastal salt marsh reclaimed for agriculture

Background and Aims

The reclamation of natural salt marshes for agricultural use is expected to profoundly influence the effects of predicted global warming on the carbon balance of coastal areas globally. This study was undertaken to understand the potential for soil respiration changes in a disturbed coastal ecosystem under future atmospheric warming

Methods

An in situ simulated warming experiment was conducted in a reclaimed salt marsh on Chongming Island in the Yangtze Estuary, China. Open-top chambers (OTCs) were applied to simulate air-warming conditions.

Results

Based on the 2-year study, we found the following: (1) Averaged across the entire study period, the OTCs significantly increased the mean air temperature by 1.53?±?0.17 °C. (2) The air warming resulted in no significant stimulation of the mean soil respiration averaged across the entire study period. Warming had no significant effect on soil respiration in the growing season, but it markedly reduced soil respiration by 16 % in the non-growing season. (3) Air warming had no significant effect on the mean soil temperature or volumetric moisture at a 5 cm depth, but it increased the mean soil porewater salinity by 119 % averaged across the entire study period. (4) Air warming had no significant effect on total organic carbon, total nitrogen or the molar C/molar N ratio of the soil in the uppermost 10 cm layer during the 2 years of soil respiration measurement. The warming treatment also had no significant effect on aboveground biomass or fine root (<2 mm) density during the second year of soil respiration measurement. (5) Soil temperature accounted for 81.0 % and 79.0 % of the temporal variations of soil respiration in the control (CON) and elevated temperature (ET) plots, respectively. No significant correlation between soil volumetric moisture and soil respiration was observed in either CON or ET. Soil porewater salinity was positively correlated with soil respiration in CON, but such a positive correlation was not found in ET. No change of the temperature sensitivity of soil respiration (Q ₁₀ value) was observed.

Conclusions

Based on above results, we speculate that soil porewater salinity was the key factor controlling the effects of air warming on soil respiration in the reclaimed salt marsh. Our results suggest that an air warming of approximately 1.5 °C over the next few decades may not lead to a higher soil respiration in reclaimed salt marshes.     

Estimates of CO2 uptake and release among European forests based on eddy covariance data

The net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of forests represents the balance of gross primary productivity (GPP) and respiration (R). Methods to estimate these two components from eddy covariance flux measurements are usually based on a functional relationship between respiration and temperature that is calibrated for night‐time (respiration) fluxes and subsequently extrapolated using daytime temperature measurements. However, respiration fluxes originate from different parts of the ecosystem, each of which experiences its own course of temperature. Moreover, if the temperature–respiration function is fitted to combined data from different stages of biological development or seasons, a spurious temperature effect may be included that will lead to overestimation of the direct effect of temperature and therefore to overestimates of daytime respiration. We used the EUROFLUX eddy covariance data set for 15 European forests and pooled data per site, month and for conditions of low and sufficient soil moisture, respectively. We found that using air temperature (measured above the canopy) rather than soil temperature (measured 5 cm below the surface) yielded the most reliable and consistent exponential (Q₁₀) temperature–respiration relationship. A fundamental difference in air temperature‐based Q₁₀ values for different sites, times of year or soil moisture conditions could not be established; all were in the range 1.6–2.5. However, base respiration (R₀, i.e. respiration rate scaled to 0°C) did vary significantly among sites and over the course of the year, with increased base respiration rates during the growing season. We used the overall mean Q₁₀ of 2.0 to estimate annual GPP and R. Testing suggested that the uncertainty in total GPP and R associated with the method of separation was generally well within 15%. For the sites investigated, we found a positive relationship between GPP and R, indicating that there is a latitudinal trend in NEE because the absolute decrease in GPP towards the pole is greater than in R.     

Response of two prairie forbs to repeated vole herbivory

Vertebrate herbivores as diverse as ungulates, geese, and rabbits preferentially feed on plants that have previously experienced herbivory. Here, we ask whether smaller grassland “cryptic consumers” such as voles (Microtus ochrogaster and M. pennsylvanicus) preferentially clip (cut stems for access to leaves or seeds) or avoid previously clipped individuals of two tallgrass prairie species (Desmanthus illinoensis and Echinacea purpurea) within a growing season. Further, we ask how these plants respond to repeated clipping within a growing season, and whether the effects of this herbivory last into the subsequent growing season. Voles preferentially clipped stems of D. illinoensis and E. purpurea plants that had been previously clipped. The exception was indiscriminant clipping of stems of E. purpurea late in the growing season when its achenes, a favorite vole food, ripened. For D. illinoensis, repeated clipping resulted in a 59% reduction in biomass, 42% lower ratio of reproductive to vegetative biomass, and 57% fewer seeds produced per plant compared with unclipped plants. These effects lasted into the following growing season in which plants were protected from voles. In contrast, the only effect of repeated clipping for E. purpurea was that the number of achenes per plant was substantially reduced by three episodes of clipping. This effect did not carry over to the next growing season. Such differences in D. illinoensis and E. purpurea response to repeated stem clipping by voles offer insights into how these small rodents can effect major changes in composition and dominance in grassland communities.     

Climate warming increases soil erosion,carbon and nitrogen loss with biofuel feedstock harvest in tallgrass prairie

Anthropogenic soil erosion severely affects land ecosystems by reducing plant productivity and stimulating horizontal carbon and nitrogen movement at the surface. Climate warming may accelerate soil erosion by altering soil temperature, moisture, and vegetation coverage. However, no experiments have been carried out to quantify soil erosion with warming. In a long‐term field experiment, we explored how annual clipping for biofuel feedstock production and warming caused soil erosion and accompanying carbon and nitrogen losses in tallgrass prairie in Oklahoma, USA. We measured relative changes in soil surface elevation between clipped and unclipped plots with or without experimental warming. Our results show that average relative erosion depth caused by clipping was 1.65±0.09 and 0.54±0.08 mm yr^?1, respectively, in warmed and control plots from November 21, 1999 to April 21, 2009. The soil erosion rate was 2148±121 g m^?2 yr^?1 in the warmed plots and 693±113 g m^?2 yr^?1 in the control plots. Soil organic carbon was lost at a rate of 69.6±5.6 g m^?2 yr^?1 in the warmed plots and 22.5±2.7 g m^?2 yr^?1 in the control plots. Total nitrogen was lost at a rate of 4.6±0.4 g m^?2 yr^?1 in the warmed plots and 1.4±0.1 g m^?2 yr^?2 in the control plots. The amount of carbon and nitrogen loss caused by clipping is equivalent to or even larger than changes caused by global change factors such as warming and rising atmospheric CO₂ concentration. In addition, soil erosion rates were significantly correlated with clipping‐induced changes in soil moisture. Our results suggest that clipping for biofuel harvest results in significant soil erosion and accompanying losses of soil carbon and nitrogen, which is aggravated by warming.     

毛白杨树干呼吸及其温度敏感性季节变化特征

树干呼吸(E_s)是森林生态系统碳循环过程的重要组成部分,深入理解树干呼吸过程对未来气候变暖的响应及反馈机制有助于更加精确地估算森林生态系统碳储量。为揭示毛白杨树干呼吸及其温度敏感性的昼夜变化和季节动态规律,利用Li-Cor6400便携式光合作用测定系统及其配套使用的土壤呼吸测量气室(LI-6400-09)对冀南平原区毛白杨的树干呼吸和树干温度实施为期1年的连续监测。结果表明:(1)在生长季,毛白杨树干呼吸与树干温度之间在晚上呈现正相关的关系(R~2=0.88);相反,两者在白天为负相关的关系(R~2=0.96)。(2)整个观测期内,毛白杨树干呼吸和树干温度均呈现"钟形"的变化曲线,树干呼吸与树干温度之间存在着较好的指数函数关系(R~2=0.93),且树干呼吸的温度敏感性系数(Q_(10))为2.62;不同季节毛白杨树干呼吸的Q_(10)存在差异,生长季的Q_(10)(1.95)明显低于非生长季(3.00),表明生长呼吸和维持呼吸对温度的响应也并不相同。(3)温度矫正后的毛白杨树干呼吸(R_(15))在昼夜和季节尺度上均存在明显的变异,即夜晚的R_(15)显著高于白天(P0.01),生长季的R_(15)明显高于非生长季(P0.05);树干可溶性糖含量与生长季的R_(15)存在较好的相关性(R~2=0.52),而非生长季的R_(15)却主要受到树干淀粉含量的影响。研究结果表明,在生长季,毛白杨树干呼吸的在日变化主要受到温度的影响,而在季节尺度上Q_(10)的变异则与树干呼吸中维持呼吸所占比例及树干中非结构性碳水化合物(可溶性糖和淀粉)的含量及类型紧密相关。     

Nighttime Warming Will Increase Winter Wheat Yield Through Improving Plant Development and Grain Growth in North China

A better understanding of the actual impacts of nighttime warming on winter wheat growth will assist in breeding new varieties and agronomic innovation for food security under future climates. A 3-year experiment was conducted over an entire growth period of winter wheat using a passive warming facility in North China. An increase of 1.1 °C in mean nighttime temperature promoted wheat development, causing a 6-day reduction of the preanthesis period but a 5-day extension of the postanthesis period. This warming significantly stimulated the rate of leaf respiration at nighttime, resulting in higher carbohydrate depletion compared to that of the unwarmed control. However, stimulation of nighttime respiration and carbohydrate depletion could be compensated for by warming-led promotion of daytime photosynthesis and carbohydrate assimilation. Meanwhile, the flag leaf area per plant and the total green leaves area were significantly higher in the warmed plots than in the unwarmed plots. Besides extending the duration of grain filling, nighttime warming significantly promoted the filling rates of the superior and inferior grains, resulting in a significant increase in the 1,000-grain weight by 6.3 %. Consequently, this moderate increase in nighttime air temperature significantly increased wheat aboveground biomass and grain yield by 12.3 and 12.0 % (p < 0.05), respectively. A moderate warming at nighttime can improve the sink-source balance of winter wheat for higher yield. Our results suggest that climatic warming may benefit winter wheat production through improvement of plant development and grain growth in North China.     

Terrestrial carbon‐cycle feedback to climate warming: experimental evidence on plant regulation and impacts of biofuel feedstock harvest

Feedback between global carbon (C) cycles and climate change is one of the major uncertainties in projecting future global warming. Coupled carbon–climate models all demonstrated a positive feedback between terrestrial C cycle and climate warming. The positive feedback results from decreased net primary production (NPP) in most models and increased respiratory C release by all the models under climate warming. Those modeling results present interesting hypotheses of future states of ecosystems and climate, which are yet to be tested against experimental results. In this study, we examined ecosystem C balance and its major components in a warming and clipping experiment in a North America tallgrass prairie. Infrared heaters have been used to elevate soil temperature by approximately 2 °C continuously since November 1999. Clipping once a year was to mimic hay or biofuel feedstock harvest. On average of data over 6 years from 2000 to 2005, estimated NPP under warming increased by 14% without clipping (P<0.05) and 26% with clipping (P<0.05) in comparison with that under control. Warming did not result in instantaneous increases in soil respiration in 1999 and 2000 but significantly increased it by approximately 8% without clipping (P<0.05) from 2001 to 2005. Soil respiration under warming increased by 15% with clipping (P<0.05) from 2000 to 2005. Warming‐stimulated plant biomass production, due to enhanced C₄ dominance, extended growing seasons, and increased nitrogen uptake and use efficiency, offset increased soil respiration, leading to no change in soil C storage at our site. However, biofuel feedstock harvest by biomass removal resulted in significant soil C loss in the clipping and control plots but was carbon negative in the clipping and warming plots largely because of positive interactions of warming and clipping in stimulating root growth. Our results demonstrate that plant production processes play a critical role in regulation of ecosystem carbon‐cycle feedback to climate change in both the current ambient and future warmed world.     

Responses of a rice–wheat rotation agroecosystem to experimental warming

Climate change is likely to affect agroecosystems in many ways. This study was performed to investigate how a rice–winter wheat rotation agroecosystem in southeast China would respond to global warming. By using an infrared heater system, the soil surface temperature was maintained about 1.5 °C above ambient milieu over 3 years. In the third growing season (2009–2010), the evapotranspiration (ET) rate, crop production, soil respiration, and soil carbon pool were monitored. The ET rate was 23 % higher in the warmed plot as compared to the control plot during the rice paddy growing season, and the rice grain yield was 16.3 % lower, but there was no significant difference in these parameters between the plots during the winter wheat-growing season. The phenology of the winter wheat shifted under experimental warming, and ET may decrease late in the winter wheat-growing season. Experimental warming significantly enhanced soil respiration, with mean annual soil respiration rates of 2.57 ± 0.17 and 1.96 ± 0.06 μmol CO₂ m^?2 s^?1 observed in the warmed and control plots, respectively. After 3 years of warming, a significant decrease in the total organic carbon was observed, but only in the surface soil (0–5 cm). Warming also stimulated the belowground biomass, which may have compensated for any heat-induced loss of soil organic carbon. Paddy rice seemed to be more vulnerable to warming than winter wheat in terms of water-use efficiency and grain production.     

Growth responses of a woody species to clipping and goat saliva

Studies on the role of mammalian herbivore saliva in plant–animal interactions have mostly focused on graminoid species and bovine saliva. A trial was performed in Botswana with clipping treatments to simulate browsing of shoots and the application of goat saliva on the woody species Combretum apiculatum Sonder (Combretaceae). Treatments were performed during early growing season while shoot growth was rapid, and responses of trees were recorded later in the same season. Clipped shoots with saliva had significantly enhanced shoot growth (tripled in length) and leaf production (2.7 times more leaves) compared to clipped shoots without saliva. However, unclipped shoots still grew more than clipped shoots, with or without saliva treatment.