Limbal Stem Cells in Health and Disease

Stem cells are present in all self-reviewing tissues and have unique properties. The ocular surface is made up of two distinct types of epithelial cells, constituting the conjunctival and the corneal epithelia. These epithelia are stratified, squamous and non-keratinized. Although anatomically continuous with each other at the corneoscleral limbus, the two cell phenotypes represent quite distinct subpopulations. The stem cells for the cornea are located at the limbus. The microenvironment of the limbus is considered to be important in maintaining stemness of the stem cells. They also act as a barrier to conjunctival epithelial cells and prevent them from migrating on to the corneal surface. In certain pathologic conditions, however, the limbal stem cells may be destroyed partially or completely resulting in varying degrees of stem cell deficiency with its characteristic clinical features. These include conjunctivalization of the cornea with vascularization, appearance of goblet cells, and an irregular and unstable epithelium. The stem cell deficiency can be managed with auto or allotransplantation of these cells. With the latter option, systemic immunosuppression is required. The stem cells can be expanded ex vivo on a processed human amniotic membrane and transplanted back to ocular surface with stem cell deficiency without the need of immunosuppression.     

Appearance of Dendritic Cells in the Basal Layer of Corneal Epithelium during Metamorphosis in Rana temporaria L.

A population of dendritic cells was found at the light optic level in the basal layer of the corneal epithelium inRana temporaria L. The cells had wide short processes which penetrated between neighboring epithelial cells. The cell bases lied on the basal membrane while the bodies are slightly elongated perpendicularly to the epithelium surface. The appearance of dendritic cells coincided in time with the beginning of metamorphosis of the tadpoles and their number increased by the end of metamorphosis. The dendritic cells we described were similar in their morphology to the Langerhans cells.     

肠上皮干细胞研究进展

肠上皮干细胞是位于肠黏膜陷窝内的具有自我更新和增殖分化为成熟肠上皮细胞功能的细胞。肠黏膜上皮细胞不断更新及肠黏膜损伤的修复均通过肠上皮干细胞增殖、分化完成。根据抗损伤能力的不同肠上皮干细胞可分为三级,一定程度内可适应不同生理、病理变化。陷窝内干细胞之间存在竞争,占优势的干细胞迅速分裂、增殖,使陷窝表现为单克隆性。肠上皮干细胞所处微环境内的各种细胞因子及端粒酶共同影响肠上皮干细胞的分裂、增殖与分化。目前尚缺乏确切的肠上皮干细胞标记,Msi-1、Hes-1和D整合素可能是肠上皮干细胞的自然标记物,但有待进一步研究证实。     

兔机械性角膜上皮损伤对结膜杯状细胞及结膜上皮细胞的作用研究

目的探讨机械性角膜上皮损伤对结膜杯状细胞及结膜上皮细胞的作用。方法选取雄性新西兰大白兔12只,建立机械性角膜上皮损伤模型（角膜中央直径8 mm上皮刮除）,建模后使用盐酸林可霉素滴眼,用法为3次/日,1滴/次,观察时间为7 d。在模型建立后第1、4、7天共3个时间点进行结膜印迹细胞学检查、结膜组织透射电镜检查,对结膜上皮细胞及杯状细胞数量及形态进行分析。结果成功建立机械性角膜上皮损伤模型。结膜印迹细胞学检查显示,造模前结膜杯状细胞数量平均值为66.367±2.466（个/每200μm×150μm面积）,Nelson 0级;造模后第1天,结膜杯状细胞数量明显下降,平均值为2.933±0.242（个/每200μm×150μm面积）,Nelson 3级;造模后第4天,结膜杯状细胞数量开始恢复,平均值为17.350±0.991（个/每200μm×150μm面积）,Nelson 2级;造模后第7天,结膜杯状细胞数量已明显恢复,平均值为32.467±2.244（个/每200μm×150μm面积）,Nelson 1级。结膜组织透射电镜检查可见到造模后结膜杯状细胞大量减少,分泌颗粒排空,细胞凋亡,结膜上皮细胞脱落坏死,胞核固缩,胞质中可见溶酶体,上皮下及上皮细胞间炎症细胞浸润;随时间推移,结膜杯状细胞数量及形态逐渐恢复,初期细胞形态欠规则,结膜上皮细胞胞间隙大,连接松散;后期杯状细胞数量明显恢复,形态饱满,分泌功能开始恢复。结膜上皮细胞分化好,细胞连接较为紧密。结论机械性角膜上皮损伤可造成结膜杯状细胞的数量下降及分泌增加,同时可造成结膜上皮细胞凋亡增加,炎症细胞浸润。结膜杯状细胞的数量、功能以及结膜上皮细胞正常结构可在一定时间内自行修复。     

Xanthosine administration does not affect the proportion of epithelial stem cells in bovine mammary tissue,but has a latent negative effect on cell proliferation

The challenge in manipulating the proportion of somatic stem cells lies in having to override tissue homeostasis. Xanthosine infusion via the teat canal has been reported to augment the number of label-retaining cells in the mammary gland of 3-month-old bovine calves. To further delineate xanthosine?s effect on defined stem cells in the mammary gland of heifers—which are candidates for increased prospective milk production following such manipulation—bovine mammary parenchymal tissue was transplanted and integrated into the cleared mammary fat pad of immunodeficient mice. Xanthosine administration for 14 days did not affect the number of label-retaining cells after 10- and 11-week chases. No change in stem cell proportion, analyzed according to CD49f and CD24 expression, was noted. Clone formation and propagation rate of cultured cells, as well as expression of stem cell markers, were also unaffected. In contrast, a latent 50% decrease in bovine mammary cell proliferation rate was observed 11 weeks after xanthosine administration. Tumor development in mice was also limited by xanthosine administration. These effects may have resulted from an initial decrease in expression of the rate-limiting enzyme in guanine synthesis, IMPDH. The data indicate that caution should be exerted when considering xanthosine for stem cell manipulation.     

Efficient Derivation of Retinal Pigment Epithelium Cells from Stem Cells

No cure has been discovered for age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the leading cause of vision loss in people over the age of 55. AMD is complex multifactorial disease with an unknown etiology, although it is largely thought to occur due to death or dysfunction of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), a monolayer of cells that underlies the retina and provides critical support for photoreceptors. RPE cell replacement strategies may hold great promise for providing therapeutic relief for a large subset of AMD patients, and RPE cells that strongly resemble primary human cells (hRPE) have been generated in multiple independent labs, including our own. In addition, the uses for iPS-RPE are not limited to cell-based therapies, but also have been used to model RPE diseases. These types of studies may not only elucidate the molecular bases of the diseases, but also serve as invaluable tools for developing and testing novel drugs. We present here an optimized protocol for directed differentiation of RPE from stem cells. Adding nicotinamide and either Activin A or IDE-1, a small molecule that mimics its effects, at specific time points, greatly enhances the yield of RPE cells. Using this technique we can derive large numbers of low passage RPE in as early as three months.     

Selective growth and expansion of human corneal epithelial basal stem cells in a three-dimensional-organ culture

We report on a three dimensional (3D)-organotypic culture in vitro for selective growth and expansion of human corneal epithelial stem cells. Limbal corneal explants were cultured on porous collagen sponges submerged in Epilife medium containing 10% fetal bovine serum. The fragments were analyzed by immunohistochemistry for the expression and distribution of a spectrum of corneal epithelium markers: p63, CK-19, CK-3, Ki-67, pan-cytokeratins and vimentin. Early in culture the epithelium began to exfoliate losing its differentiated high-zone layers into the medium, maintaining only basal and few parabasal cells (mostly both p63 and CK-19 positive), which had remained attached to the specimen. After 14 days a new epithelium was formed displaying an increasing prominence of basal and suprabasal cells that, sliding onto the whole explant, showed the tendency to underlay stromal tissue and infiltrate into the underlaying sponge. After 21 days, sponge and fragments were incubated with trypsin-EDTA and dispersed epithelial cells were pipetted on a feeder monolayer of mitomycin-c-treated murine NIH.3T3 fibroblasts. Colonies of undifferentiated epithelial cells (p63, CK-19 and Ki-67 positive, CK-3 negative) were obtained: their cells, if seeded onto a collagen matrix containing embedded primary human corneal fibroblasts as feeder, provided the basic building blocks for reconstructing in vitro a 3D-multilayered corneal epithelium.     

通过整体消化法分离具有集落形成能力的胰腺上皮样细胞

目的:胰腺上皮细胞能诱导成表达胰岛素的细胞,成为细胞替代疗法治疗糖尿病的重要来源。胰腺细胞的分离多采用机械剪切后胶原酶消化,本文在以往研究基础上,探索一种能分离得到更纯净的胰腺上皮样细胞的新方法。方法:本研究采用胰腺整体消化的方法,将成体小鼠整个胰腺取下,摘除系膜及大的血管,置于胶原酶中消化20min,用PBS吹打胰腺组织,得到的细胞悬液,离心后去除上清与细胞碎片,用培养基重悬实质细胞,接种于6 cm培养皿中,培养7-10天后得到单细胞集落。结果:整体消化法不剪碎胰腺组织,从而避免多种胰腺细胞的参与,得到较为纯净的胰腺上皮细胞悬液,细胞总体数量小于部分消化法,但是单细胞比率远远高于部分消化法,得到的细胞集落更纯净,不需要去除成纤维细胞,方便筛选及进一步扩大培养。结论:整体消化法能够分离纯化出一群在离体条件下具有强增殖能力、形成大的上皮样集落的细胞。该分离方法方便、快捷,为今后进一步研究成体胰腺干细胞增殖与分化调控机制等问题奠定基础。     

Changes of Cytochemical Markers in the Conjunctival and Corneal Epithelium After Corneal Debridement

1. The aim of this study was to determine the epithelial changes of the conjunctiva and cornea up to 7 days after corneal debridement and the changes highlighted included (1) proliferation, (2) production of growth factor, (3) changes in calcium binding protein marker, (4) production of cytokine, and (5) maturity of the regeneration corneal epithelium.2. The cytochemical changes of the corneal and conjunctival epithelia of rabbit were analyzed up to 7 days after debridement.3. An increase in proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) was observed in the limbal epithelia 12 hr after lesion and reached a peak by 48 hr.4. Some proliferating limbal cells also contained epidermal growth factor (EGF) beginning 24 hr after injury. The early limbal cell proliferation and the EGF production and their persistence until 7 days after lesion were likely involved with the process of regeneration.5. Other positive markers appeared after lesion included tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and calcium binding proteins S100A and S100B, which appeared mainly within the first 48 hr after lesion and then started to decline. The short appearance and the relatively small quantity of TNF indicated that this cytokine was probably not very important in the repair process and its appearance might be related to the injury induced. The presence of S100A and S100B could be associated with both cell death after injury and the proliferation of new epithelium.6. The cornea epithelium was still immature 7 days after lesion in that it still contained cytokeratin.7. In conclusion, the critical hours of peak conjunctival and corneal changes after corneal debridement were in the first 2 days.     

The Development of Specialized Chromatophores and a Changeable Light Filter in the Cornea of the Sculpin Porocottus allisi

The development of corneal staining cells (CSCs) and a changeable light filter made of CSCs was studied in the sculpin Porocottus allisi(Cottidae). It is shown that CSC development is complete within 9 days, and the whole changeable light filter system, within 11 days. The development begins with the droplike chromatophore stage. Later on, numerous processes and a projection towards the pupillary zone are formed, accompanied by the appearance of granular structures in the cytoplasm. In subsequent development, the cell becomes round. Later on, it becomes lanceolate, forming a single process extended towards the pupillary zone. On day 3 of development, the process is relatively short and wide. Beginning from this moment, the cell responds to changes in illumination. Light filter formation starts in the dorsonasal cornea and expands dorsally, ending in the ventral cornea 6 days after beginning. The end of light filter development coincides with the metamorphosis of the larvae, which is consistent with the peculiarities of their ecology.     

Subconjunctival Injection of Transdifferentiated Oral Mucosal Epithelial Cells for Limbal Stem Cell Deficiency in Rats

Rat limbal niche cells (LNCs) have been proven to induce transdifferentiation of oral mucosal epithelial cells (OMECs) into corneal epithelial-like cells termed transdifferentiated oral mucosal epithelial cells (T-OMECs). This investigation aimed to evaluate the effect of subconjunctival T-OMEC injections on alkali-induced limbal stem cell deficiency (LSCD) in rats. LNCs were cocultured with OMECs in the Transwell system to obtain T-OMECs, with NIH-3T3 cells serving as a control. Subconjunctival injection of single T-OMEC or OMEC suspension was performed immediately after corneal alkali injury. T-OMECs were prelabeled with the fluorescent dye CM-DiI in vitro and tracked in vivo. Corneal epithelial defect, opacity, and neovascularization were quantitatively analyzed. The degree of corneal epithelial defect (from day 1 onward), opacity (from day 5 onward), and neovascularization (from day 2 onward) was significantly less in the T-OMEC group than in the OMEC group. Cytokeratin 12 (CK12), pigment epithelium–derived factor, and soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 were expressed at a higher rate following T-OMEC injection. Some CM-DiI-labeled cells were found to be coexpressed with CK12, Pax6, and ΔNp63α in the corneal epithelium after subconjunctival injection. Subconjunctival injection of T-OMECs prevents conjunctival invasion and maintains a normal corneal phenotype, which might be a novel strategy in the treatment of LSCD:     

The Effect of 3-Aminobenzamide on Thymidine Incorporation in Ultra-Violet Irradiated Chick Pigment Epithelium Cells

The addition of 3-aminobenzamide (3-AB) to cultures of chick embryo pigmented epithelium rescues these cells after high doses of ultraviolet treatment. The addition of 3-AB prevents cells from losing pre-formed protein and DNA and stimulates thymidine incorporation by the cells after ultraviolet irradiation. Since 3-AB is an inhibitor of poly (ADP) ribosylation, these observations support the conclusion that death of these cells after ultra-violet irradiation depends upon poly (ADP) ribosylation and may be an apoptotic response.     

Limbal Approach-Subretinal Injection of Viral Vectors for Gene Therapy in Mice Retinal Pigment Epithelium

The eye is a small and enclosed organ which makes it an ideal target for gene therapy. Recently various strategies have been applied to gene therapy in retinopathies using non-viral and viral gene delivery to the retina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Subretinal injection is the best approach to deliver viral vectors directly to RPE cells. Before the clinical trial of a gene therapy, it is inevitable to validate the efficacy of the therapy in animal models of various retinopathies. Thus, subretinal injection in mice becomes a fundamental technique for an ocular gene therapy. In this protocol, we provide the easy and replicable technique for subretinal injection of viral vectors to experimental mice. This technique is modified from the intravitreal injection, which is widely used technique in ophthalmology clinics. The representative results of RPE/choroid/scleral complex flat-mount will help to understand the efficacy of this technique and adjust the volume and titer of viral vectors for the extent of gene transduction.     

MicroRNA Expression Profiles of Human iPS Cells,Retinal Pigment Epithelium Derived From iPS,and Fetal Retinal Pigment Epithelium

The objective of this report is to describe the protocols for comparing the microRNA (miRNA) profiles of human induced-pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) derived from human iPS cells (iPS-RPE), and fetal RPE. The protocols include collection of RNA for analysis by microarray, and the analysis of microarray data to identify miRNAs that are differentially expressed among three cell types. The methods for culture of iPS cells and fetal RPE are explained. The protocol used for differentiation of RPE from human iPS is also described. The RNA extraction technique we describe was selected to allow maximal recovery of very small RNA for use in a miRNA microarray. Finally, cellular pathway and network analysis of microarray data is explained. These techniques will facilitate the comparison of the miRNA profiles of three different cell types.     

Immunosuppressive properties of mesenchymal stromal cell cultures derived from the limbus of human and rabbit corneas

Background aimsMesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) cultivated from the corneal limbus (L-MSCs) provide a potential source of cells for corneal repair. In the present study, we investigated the immunosuppressive properties of human L-MSCs and putative rabbit L-MSCs to develop an allogeneic therapy and animal model of L-MSC transplantation.MethodsMSC-like cultures were established from the limbal stroma of human and rabbit (New Zealand white) corneas using either serum-supplemented medium or a commercial serum-free MSC medium (MesenCult-XF Culture Kit; Stem Cell Technologies, Melbourne, Australia). L-MSC phenotype was examined by flow cytometry. The immunosuppressive properties of L-MSC cultures were assessed using mixed leukocyte reactions. L-MSC cultures were also tested for their ability to support colony formation by primary limbal epithelial (LE) cells.ResultsHuman L-MSC cultures were typically CD34⁻, CD45⁻ and HLA-DR⁻ and CD73⁺, CD90⁺, CD105⁺ and HLA-ABC⁺. High levels (>80%) of CD146 expression were observed for L-MSC cultures grown in serum-supplemented medium but not cultures grown in MesenCult-XF (approximately 1%). Rabbit L-MSCs were approximately 95% positive for major histocompatibility complex class I and expressed lower levels of major histocompatibility complex class II (approximately 10%), CD45 (approximately 20%), CD105 (approximately 60%) and CD90 (<10%). Human L-MSCs and rabbit L-MSCs suppressed human T-cell proliferation by up to 75%. Conversely, L-MSCs from either species stimulated a 2-fold to 3-fold increase in LE cell colony formation.ConclusionsL-MSCs display immunosuppressive qualities in addition to their established non-immunogenic profile and stimulate LE cell growth in vitro across species boundaries. These results support the potential use of allogeneic L-MSCs in the treatment of corneal disorders and suggest that the rabbit would provide a useful pre-clinical model.     

Subretinal Injection of Gene Therapy Vectors and Stem Cells in the Perinatal Mouse Eye

The loss of sight affects approximately 3.4 million people in the United States and is expected to increase in the upcoming years.¹ Recently, gene therapy and stem cell transplantations have become key therapeutic tools for treating blindness resulting from retinal degenerative diseases. Several forms of autologous transplantation for age-related macular degeneration (AMD), such as iris pigment epithelial cell transplantation, have generated encouraging results, and human clinical trials have begun for other forms of gene and stem cell therapies.² These include RPE65 gene replacement therapy in patients with Leber''s congenital amaurosis and an RPE cell transplantation using human embryonic stem (ES) cells in Stargardt''s disease.^3-4 Now that there are gene therapy vectors and stem cells available for treating patients with retinal diseases, it is important to verify these potential therapies in animal models before applying them in human studies. The mouse has become an important scientific model for testing the therapeutic efficacy of gene therapy vectors and stem cell transplantation in the eye.^5-8 In this video article, we present a technique to inject gene therapy vectors or stem cells into the subretinal space of the mouse eye while minimizing damage to the surrounding tissue.     

Isolation of Retinal Stem Cells from the Mouse Eye

The adult mouse retinal stem cell (RSC) is a rare quiescent cell found within the ciliary epithelium (CE) of the mammalian eye^1,2,3. The CE is made up of non-pigmented inner and pigmented outer cell layers, and the clonal RSC colonies that arise from a single pigmented cell from the CE are made up of both pigmented and non-pigmented cells which can be differentiated to form all the cell types of the neural retina and the RPE. There is some controversy about whether all the cells within the spheres all contain at least some pigment⁴; however the cells are still capable of forming the different cell types found within the neural retina^1-3. In some species, such as amphibians and fish, their eyes are capable of regeneration after injury⁵, however; the mammalian eye shows no such regenerative properties. We seek to identify the stem cell in vivo and to understand the mechanisms that keep the mammalian retinal stem cells quiescent^6-8, even after injury as well as using them as a potential source of cells to help repair physical or genetic models of eye injury through transplantation^9-12. Here we describe how to isolate the ciliary epithelial cells from the mouse eye and grow them in culture in order to form the clonal retinal stem cell spheres. Since there are no known markers of the stem cell in vivo, these spheres are the only known way to prospectively identify the stem cell population within the ciliary epithelium of the eye.     

Primary Cilium-Mediated Retinal Pigment Epithelium Maturation Is Disrupted in Ciliopathy Patient Cells

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