Notch2 is required for formation of the placental circulatory system, but not for cell-type specification in the developing mouse placenta

We have previously reported that a mutation in the ankyrin repeats of mouse Notch2 results in embryonic lethality by embryonic day 11.5 (E11.5), showing developmental retardation at E10.5. This indicated that Notch2 plays an essential role in postimplantation development in mice. Here, we demonstrate that whole embryo culture can circumvent developmental retardation of Notch2 mutant embryos for up to 1 day, suggesting that the lethality was primarily caused by extraembryonic defects. Histological examinations revealed delayed entry of maternal blood into the mutant placenta and poor blood sinus formation at later stages. Notch2-expressing cells appeared around maternal blood sinuses. Specification of trophoblast subtypes appeared not to be drastically disturbed and expression of presumptive downstream genes of Notch2 signaling was not altered by the Notch2 mutation. Thus, in the developing mouse placenta, Notch2 is unlikely to be involved in cell fate decisions, but rather participates in formation of maternal blood sinuses. In aggregation chimeras with wild-type tetraploid embryos, the mutant embryos developed normally until E12.5, but died before E13.5. The chimeric placentas showed a restored maternal blood sinus formation when compared with the mutant placentas, but not at the level of wild-type diploid placentas. Therefore, it was concluded that the mutant suffers from defects in maternal blood sinus formation. Thus, Notch2 is not cell autonomously required for the early cell fate determination of subtypes of trophoblast cells, but plays an indispensable role in the formation of maternal blood sinuses in the developing mouse placenta.     

An overview of the Notch signalling pathway

The Notch receptor plays a key role in modulating cell fate decisions throughout the development of invertebrate and vertebrate species. Four Notch homologues have been identified in the human genome and aberrant Notch function has been associated with a number of human diseases. An intriguing pathway of Notch signalling has been elucidated involving multiple proteolytic steps and this pathway offers several targets for potential therapeutic intervention. While a consensus model has emerged, in the details there is much that is contentious. This review will primarily focus on our current understanding of the proteolytic events involved in generating and regulating Notch signalling.     

Isolation of a murine homologue of the Drosophila neuralized gene, a gene required for axonemal integrity in spermatozoa and terminal maturation of the mammary gland

The Drosophila neuralized gene shows genetic interactions with Notch, Enhancer of split, and other neurogenic genes and is thought to be involved in cell fate specification in the central nervous system and the mesoderm. In addition, a human homologue of the Drosophila neuralized gene has been described as a potential tumor suppressor gene in malignant astrocytomas. We have isolated a murine homologue of the Drosophila and human Neuralized genes and, in an effort to understand its physiological function, derived mice with a targeted deletion of this gene. Surprisingly, mice homozygous for the introduced mutation do not show aberrant cell fate specifications in the central nervous system or in the developing mesoderm. This is in contrast to mice with targeted deletions in other vertebrate homologues of neurogenic genes such as Notch, Delta, and Cbf-1. Male Neuralized null mice, however, are sterile due to a defect in axoneme organization in the spermatozoa that leads to highly compromised tail movement and sperm immotility. In addition, female Neuralized null animals are defective in the final stages of mammary gland maturation during pregnancy.     

Expression of Notch 1, 2 and 3 is regulated by epithelial-mesenchymal interactions and retinoic acid in the developing mouse tooth and associated with determination of ameloblast cell fate

Notch 1, Notch 2, and Notch 3 are three highly conserved mammalian homologues of the Drosophila Notch gene, which encodes a transmembrane protein important for various cell fate decisions during development. Little is yet known about regulation of mammalian Notch gene expression, and this issue has been addressed in the developing rodent tooth during normal morphogenesis and after experimental manipulation. Notch 1, 2, and 3 genes show distinct cell-type specific expression patterns. Most notably, Notch expression is absent in epithelial cells in close contact with mesenchyme, which may be important for acquisition of the ameloblast fate. This reveals a previously unknown prepatterning of dental epithelium at early stages, and suggests that mesenchyme negatively regulates Notch expression in epithelium. This hypothesis has been tested in homo- and heterotypic explant experiments in vitro. The data show that Notch expression is downregulated in dental epithelial cells juxtaposed to mesenchyme, indicating that dental epithelium needs a mesenchyme-derived signal in order to maintain the downregulation of Notch. Finally, Notch expression in dental mesenchyme is upregulated in a region surrounding beads soaked in retinoic acid (50-100 micrograms/ml) but not in fibroblast growth factor-2 (100-250 micrograms/ml). The response to retinoic acid was seen in explants of 11-12-d old mouse embryos but not in older embryos. These data suggest that Notch genes may be involved in mediating some of the biological effects of retinoic acid during normal development and after teratogenic exposure.     

Characterization of mouse Dach2, a homologue of Drosophila dachshund

The Drosophila genes eyeless, eyes absent, sine oculis and dachshund cooperate as components of a network to control retinal determination. Vertebrate homologues of these genes have been identified and implicated in the control of cell fate. We present the cloning and characterization of mouse Dach2, a homologue of dachshund. In situ hybridization studies demonstrate Dach2 expression in embryonic nervous tissues, sensory organs and limbs. This pattern is similar to mouse Dach1, suggesting a partially redundant role for these genes during development. In addition, we determine that Dach2 expression in the forebrain of Pax6 mutants and dermamyotome of Pax3 mutants is not detectably altered. Finally, genetic mapping experiments place mouse Dach2 on the X chromosome between Xist and Esx1. The identification of human DACH2 sequences at Xq21 suggests a possible role for this gene in Allan-Herndon syndrome, Miles-Carpenter syndrome, X-linked cleft palate and/or Megalocornea.     

Multiple levels of Notch signal regulation (review)

Notch is a vitally important signalling receptor controlling cell fate determination and pattern formation in numerous ways during development of both invertebrate and vertebrate species. An intriguing pathway for the Notch signal has emerged where, after ligand-dependent proteolysis, an intracellular fragment of the receptor itself translocates to the nucleus to regulate gene expression. The nuclear activity of the Notch intracellular domain is linked to complexes regulating chromatin organization through histone deacetylation and acetylation. To allow the Notch signal to be deployed in numerous contexts, many different mechanisms have evolved to regulate the level, duration and spatial distribution of Notch activity. Regulation occurs at multiple levels including patterns of ligand and receptor expression, Notch-ligand interactions, trafficking of the receptor and ligands, and covalent modifications including glycosylation, phosphorylation and ubiquitination. Several Notch regulatory proteins have conserved domains that link them to the ubiquitination pathway, and ubiquitination of the Notch intracellular domain has recently been linked to its degradation. Different proteolytically derived isoforms of Notch have also been identified that may be involved in alternative Notch-dependent signals or regulatory mechanisms, and differences between the four mammalian Notch homologues are beginning to be appreciated.     

Role of neurogenic genes in establishment of follicle cell fate and oocyte polarity during oogenesis in Drosophila

Oogenesis in Drosophila involves specification of both germ cells and the surrounding somatic follicle cells, as well as the determination of oocyte polarity. We found that two neurogenic genes, Notch and Delta, are required in oogenesis. These genes encode membrane proteins with epidermal growth factor repeats and are essential in the decision of an embryonic ectodermal cell to take on the fate of neuroblast or epidermoblast. In oogenesis, mutation in either gene leads to an excess of posterior follicle cells, a cell fate change reminiscent of the hyperplasia of neuroblasts seen in neurogenic mutant embryos. Furthermore, the Notch mutation in somatic cells causes mislocalization of bicoid in the oocyte. These results suggest that the neurogenic genes Notch and Delta are involved in both follicle cell development and the establishment of anterior-posterior polarity in the oocyte.     

An activity of Notch regulates JNK signalling and affects dorsal closure in Drosophila.

BACKGROUND: The Drosophila Notch protein is a receptor that controls cell fate during embryonic development, particularly in lateral inhibition, a process that acts on groups of cells that share a particular developmental potential to restrict the number of cells that will adopt that cell fate. The process of lateral inhibition is implemented by the nuclear protein Suppressor of Hairless (Su(H)) and is triggered by the ligand Delta. Recent results have shown that the interaction between Delta and Notch triggers the cleavage of the intracellular domain of Notch which then translocates to the nucleus and binds to Su(H). RESULTS: We find that Notch plays a role in the patterning of the dorsal epidermis of the Drosophila embryo and that this function of Notch is independent of Su(H), requires Notch at the plasma membrane and targets the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signalling pathway. Notch mutants show high levels of JNK activity and can rescue the effects of lowered JNK signalling resulting from mutations in the hemipterous and basket genes. Two regions of the intracellular domain of Notch are involved: the Cdc10/ankyrin repeats, which downregulate signalling through the JNK pathway, and a region carboxy-terminal to these repeats, which regulates this negative function. CONCLUSIONS: Our results reveal a novel signalling activity of Notch that does not require its cleavage and acts by modulating signalling through the JNK pathway. In the Drosophila embryo, this activity plays an important role in the morphogenetic movements that drive dorsal closure.     

Gene organization of human NOTCH4 and (CTG)n polymorphism in this human counterpart gene of mouse proto-oncogene Int3

The cDNA and genomic clones for the human counterpart of the mouse mammary tumor gene Int3 were isolated and sequenced. We designated this human major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class III gene as NOTCH4, since very recently, by sequencing cDNA clones, the complete form of the mouse proto-oncogene Int3 has been clarified and named Notch4. The present human NOTCH4 sequence is the first example of the genomic sequence for the extracellular portion of the mammalian Notch4, and by comparing it with the mouse Notch4 cDNA sequence, the exon/intron organization was clarified. The comparison of the predicted amino acid sequence of human NOTCH4 with those of other Notch homologues of a wide range of species revealed four subfamilies for mammalian Notch. In the protein coding region of human NOTCH4, we found (CTG)_n repeats showing a variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphism for different human leukocyte antigen (HLA) haplotypes. Ten genes mapped on 6p21.3, including NOTCH4, were found to have counterparts structurally and functionally similar to those mostly mapped on 9q33-q34, indicating segmental chromosome duplication during the course of evolution. Similarity of genes on chromosomes 1, 6, 9 and 19 was also discussed.     

A Genetic Analysis of Deltex and Its Interaction with the Notch Locus in Drosophila Melanogaster

During Drosophila development networks of genes control the developmental pathways that specify cell fates. The Notch gene is a well characterized member of some cell fate pathways, and several other genes belonging to these same pathways have been identified because they share a neurogenic null phenotype with Notch. However, it is unlikely that the neurogenic genes represent all of the genes in these pathways. The goal of this research was to use a genetic approach to identify and characterize one of the other genes that acts with Notch to specify cell fate. Mutant alleles of genes in the same pathway should have phenotypes similar to Notch alleles and should show phenotypic interactions with Notch alleles. With this approach we identified the deltex gene as a potential cell fate gene. An extensive phenotypic characterization of loss-of-function deltex phenotypes showed abnormalities (such as thick wing veins, double bristles and extra cone cells) that suggest that deltex is involved in cell fate decision processes. Phenotypic interactions between deltex and Notch as seen in double mutants showed that Notch and deltex do not code for duplicate functions and that the two genes function together in many different developing tissues. The results of these investigations lead to the conclusion that the deltex gene functions with the Notch gene in one or more developmental pathways to specify cell fate.     

The Notch gene, adhesion, and developmental fate in the Drosophila embryo

The Notch locus in Drosophila encodes a transmembrane protein required for the determination of cell fate in ectodermal cells. When these cells are faced with a choice of two possible fates, Notch enables some of them to advance from the fate that represents a "default" state. The decision appears to involve both an interaction between cells and the presence of the Notch product on the surface of those advancing from the default state. The timing of gene action suggests that Notch plays a role in the stabilization of the choice of cell fate and that the Notch-mediated interaction occurs between presumptive epidermal cells. Several properties of the Notch product are characteristic of an adhesion molecule, and thus cell adhesion may play a role in the determination of cell fate.     

Evolutionary analysis of vertebrate Notch genes

We have conducted an evolutionary analysis of Notch genes of the vertebrates Danio rerio and Mus musculus to examine the expansion and diversification of the Notch family during vertebrate evolution. The existence of multiple Notch genes in vertebrate genomes suggests that the increase in Notch signaling pathways may be necessary for the additional complexity observed in the vertebrate body plan. However, orthology relationships within the vertebrate Notch family indicate that biological functions are not fixed within orthologous groups. Phylogenetic reconstruction of the vertebrate Notch family suggests that the zebrafish notch1a and 1b genes resulted from a duplication occurring around the time of the teleost/mammalian divergence. There is also evidence that the mouse Notch4 gene is the result of a rapid divergence from a Notch3-like gene. Investigation of the ankyrin repeat region sequences showed there to be little evidence for gene conversion events between repeat units. However, relationships between repeats 2-5 suggest that these repeats are the result of a tandem duplication of a dual repeat unit. Selective pressure on maintenance of ankyrin repeat sequences indicated by relationships between the repeats suggests that specific repeats are responsible for particular biological activities, a finding consistent with mutational studies of the Caenorhabditis elegans gene glp-1. Sequence similarities between the ankyrin repeats and the region immediately C-terminal of the repeats further suggests that this region may be involved in the modulation of ankyrin repeat function.     

Snx5, as a Mind bomb-binding protein, is expressed in hematopoietic and endothelial precursor cells in zebrafish

Notch signaling has an evolutionarily conserved function for cell fate determination and stem cell maintenance. Previously, we identified a novel component of the Notch signaling pathway in zebrafish, mind bomb, which encodes an E3 ubiquitin ligase essential for Notch signal activation. Further studies showed that Mind bomb(-/-) mouse embryos exhibited pan-Notch phenotypes in various tissues, suggesting that Mind bomb function is conserved in mammals. Therefore we sought to understand the various molecular partners of Mind bomb using yeast two-hybrid screening. In this search we identified Sorting nexin 5 (Snx5) as a novel interacting partner of Mind bomb. Furthermore we demonstrated that Snx5 colocalizes with Mind bomb in early endosomal compartments, suggesting that Snx5 is important for Mind bomb trafficking. In addition, we identified zebrafish orthologue of Snx5 and showed that snx5 is predominantly expressed in hematopoietic and endothelial precursor cells in zebrafish. We also found defects in hematopoiesis and blood vessel development in snx5 morpholino-injected embryos. Taken together, we show that Snx5, a novel interacting partner of Mind bomb, may have an essential role for cell fate determination in early development.     

Notch inhibits Ptf1 function and acinar cell differentiation in developing mouse and zebrafish pancreas

Notch signaling regulates cell fate decisions in a variety of adult and embryonic tissues, and represents a characteristic feature of exocrine pancreatic cancer. In developing mouse pancreas, targeted inactivation of Notch pathway components has defined a role for Notch in regulating early endocrine differentiation, but has been less informative with respect to a possible role for Notch in regulating subsequent exocrine differentiation events. Here, we show that activated Notch and Notch target genes actively repress completion of an acinar cell differentiation program in developing mouse and zebrafish pancreas. In developing mouse pancreas, the Notch target gene Hes1 is co-expressed with Ptf1-P48 in exocrine precursor cells, but not in differentiated amylase-positive acinar cells. Using lentiviral delivery systems to induce ectopic Notch pathway activation in explant cultures of E10.5 mouse dorsal pancreatic buds, we found that both Hes1 and Notch1-IC repress acinar cell differentiation, but not Ptf1-P48 expression, in a cell-autonomous manner. Ectopic Notch activation also delays acinar cell differentiation in developing zebrafish pancreas. Further evidence of a role for endogenous Notch in regulating exocrine pancreatic differentiation was provided by examination of zebrafish embryos with homozygous mindbomb mutations, in which Notch signaling is disrupted. mindbomb-deficient embryos display accelerated differentiation of exocrine pancreas relative to wild-type clutchmate controls. A similar phenotype was induced by expression of a dominant-negative Suppressor of Hairless [Su(H)] construct, confirming that Notch actively represses acinar cell differentiation during zebrafish pancreatic development. Using transient transfection assays involving a Ptf1-responsive reporter gene, we further demonstrate that Notch and Notch/Su(H) target genes directly inhibit Ptf1 activity, independent of changes in expression of Ptf1 component proteins. These results define a normal inhibitory role for Notch in the regulation of exocrine pancreatic differentiation.     

Highly conserved O-fucose sites have distinct effects on Notch1 function

The extracellular domain of mouse Notch1 contains 36 tandem epidermal growth factor-like (EGF) repeats, many of which are modified with O-fucose. Previous work from several laboratories has indicated that O-fucosylation plays an important role in ligand mediated Notch activation. Nonetheless, it is not clear whether all, or a subset, of the EGF repeats need to be O-fucosylated. Three O-fucose sites are invariantly conserved in all Notch homologues with 36 EGF repeats (within EGF repeats 12, 26, and 27). To investigate which O-fucose sites on Notch1 are important for ligand-mediated signaling, we mutated the three invariant O-fucose sites in mouse Notch1, along with several less highly conserved sites, and evaluated their ability to transduce Jagged1- and Delta1-mediated signaling in a cell-based assay. Our analysis revealed that mutation of any of the three invariant O-fucose sites resulted in significant changes in both Delta1 and Jagged1 mediated signaling, but mutations in less highly conserved sites had no detectable effect. Interestingly, mutation of each invariant site gave a distinct effect on Notch function. Mutation of the O-fucose site in EGF repeat 12 resulted in loss of Delta1 and Jagged1 signaling, while mutation of the O-fucose site in EGF repeat 26 resulted in hyperactivation of both Delta1 and Jagged1 signaling. Mutation of the O-fucose site in EGF repeat 27 resulted in faulty trafficking of the Notch receptor to the cell surface and a decreased S1 processing of the receptor. These results indicate that the most highly conserved O-fucose sites in Notch1 are important for both processing and ligand-mediated signaling in the context of a cell-based signaling assay.