Maternal behavior and early development of pampas deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus) fawns in a semi-captive environment

Maternal–infant interaction and behaviors are adapted to reduce the risk of predation and increase the probability of survival of the species. We determined how mother–young encounters and communication change by the development of the fawn (locomotion and feeding) throughout lactation in pampas deer (Ozotocerus bezoarticus). We registered the behavior of mother–fawn dyads for the first 60 postnatal days. Our results revealed three main developmental stages in the fawn, hiding (~0–19 days), active (~20–39 days), and adult-like (~40–60 days). In the hiding stage, the fawn stayed hidden, closer to the mother, and spent less time active, the mothers vocalized more often than the fawn, licked the fawns intensively while nursing, and were responsible for initiating nursing. In the active stage, licking behavior and vocalizations of the mother decreased while the fawns ate solid food, initiated nursing bouts, and displayed bursts of running activity. Finally, in the adult-like stage, the fawn showed many signs of nutritional weaning, and similar patterns of activity to their mothers. However, the duration and frequency of nursing bouts were unchanged during the study. We described mother–fawn interaction in pampas deer for the first time, and found that increased running activity in fawns anticipates nutritional weaning. Our results also suggest that to adapt to the development of the fawn, mothers only modify the dynamics of interaction and encounters rather than the time invested in nursing, an activity that also plays a role in maintaining mother–young affiliation.     

Winter fawn survival in black-tailed deer populations affected by hair loss syndrome

Overwinter fawn mortality associated with hair loss syndrome (HLS) is anecdotally thought to be important in declines of Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) populations in Washington and Oregon (USA). We determined prevalence of HLS in black-tailed deer, September and April fawn:doe ratios, and minimum overwinter survival rates of fawns for selected game management units (GMUs) in western Washington from 1999 to 2001. Prevalence of HLS ranged from 6% to 74% in fawns and 4% to 33% in does. Minimum fawn survival ranged from 0.56 to 0.83 and was unrelated to prevalence of HLS in either does (r=0.005, P=0.991) or fawns (r=-0.215, P=0.608). The prevalence of HLS in either does or fawns was also unrelated to either fall fawn:doe ratios (HLS does: r=-0.132, P=0.779; HLS fawns: r=0.130, P=0.760) or spring fawn:doe ratios (HLS does: r=-0.173, P=0.711; HLS fawns: r=-0.020, P=0.963). However, the prevalence of HLS in does and fawns was strongly related (r=0.942, P=0.002), and GMUs with high prevalence of HLS had lower deer population densities (fawns: r=-0.752, P=0.031; does: r=-0.813, P=0.026). Increased overwinter mortality of fawns because of HLS was not supported by our data. Decreased production of fawns, increased summer mortality of fawns, or both were seen in six of eight study GMU-year combinations. Observed rates of productivity and minimum fawn survival were inadequate to maintain population size in five of eight study GMU-year combinations, assuming an annual doe survival rate of 0.75. The influence of deer condition and population health on adult survival, fawn production, preweaning fawn survival, parasitism, and prevalence of HLS in both fawns and adults need to be clarified to identify what factors are limiting black-tailed deer productivity.     

Forage quality's influence on mule deer fawns

In many mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) populations, recruitment of fawns drives population dynamics. The quality of food available to females and their fawns in summer and autumn may play an important role in fawn recruitment. We examined direct links between digestible energy (DE) content of food and the DE intake of females on the nutrient concentration of milk and between the nursing behavior, DE intake, growth, and survival in captive mule deer fawns. We offered females and their fawns diets that simulated the natural decline in DE content of forage from mid-summer to late autumn in many western landscapes. Fawns fed a higher DE diet weighed 14% more at the onset of winter, had fewer unsuccessful nursing attempts, consumed milk with more protein and energy, and had higher survival than fawns fed a low DE diet. Differences between fawn performances among treatments were greatest when diet quality began decreasing earlier in the summer. Because our results indicate that summer and autumn nutrition is likely to influence fawn recruitment, wildlife biologists should include metrics for summer precipitation and late autumn fawn mass in population models, and land managers should focus on methods for improving the nutritional carrying capacity of summer and early autumn habitats. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Behavioral and physiological responses of forest musk deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Moschus berezovskii</Emphasis>) to experimental fawn manipulation

High stress response is an important factor impeding the breeding of wild animals in captivity. Experimental fawn manipulation is considered a suitable approach to reduce the negative effects of behavioral and physiological stress. The forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii) is classified as “endangered” by the IUCN Red List due to over-exploitation for musk production. Musk is highly valued for its cosmetic and alleged pharmaceutical properties and has stimulated the enthusiasm of captive musk deer breeding in recent years. This study attempts to reduce behavioral and physiological stress responses in juvenile musk deer using experimental fawn manipulation. Habituation started 5 days after birth and lasted until weaning age (90 days). We determined the behavioral stress response at the age of 30, 60, 90, 150, and 360 days by measuring acceptance or rejection of three treatment intensities (i.e., stroking, embracement) and quantified behavioral responses (urination, approaching the investigator). At the same time, physiological stress parameters were established, measuring the fecal glucocorticosteroid metabolite (FGM) concentration. Our results indicate that fawn manipulation initially reduced the behavioral stress, but after termination of treatments, stress symptoms reoccurred. We detected no difference in the FGM concentrations between treatment and control groups, suggesting that the experimental fawn manipulation did not decrease the physiological stress response. This implies that behavioral stress reduction cannot be sustained if the physiological stress remains unaltered. We argue that the socio-positive reactions of musk deer fawns to humans could be phenotypic and that the physiological stress response rather reflects their intrinsic characteristics than a successful manipulation.     

Attainment of early puberty in female black-tailed deer. (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus).

Female black-tailed deer fawns were hand-raised until four months of age and bred to bucks in their first fall. Over 50% conceived and subsequently gave birth to single fawns. Conceptions occurred later than for wild adults but at weights which equalled the weights of the heaviest wild fawns. A high proportion of the fawns born to fawn does died due to presumed lactation failure. Further work is continuing on the factors governing puberty attainment in this species.     

Experimental infection of white-tailed deer with Elaeophora schneideri.

An attempt was made to infect fawn and adult white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, with Elaeophora schneideri. Experimental infection of fawns caused a relative eosinophilia that persisted. Obstruction of a coronary artery caused death of one fawn, and weakness, dyspnea, and locomotor difficulties were observed in another fawn and an adult. Plaque-like lesions were observed grossly in the intimal lining of carotid arteries, and subintimal thickening and proliferation of fibrous tissue in vessel walls were observed microscopically. Nematodes were recovered from 3 of 4 fawns and 0 of 4 adults, suggesting an age-related resistance in older animals. Microfilariae were recovered via facial skin biopsy of a single fawn. This study suggests that white-tailed deer serve as usual hosts for E. schneideri, although the host-parasite relationship may be tenuous.     

Population-level response of coyotes to a pulsed resource event

From foraging theory, generalist predators should increase consumption of prey if prey availability increases. Pulsed resource events introduce a large influx of prey to predators that may exhibit a functional response of increased consumption rate on, or specialization to, this abundant food resource. We predicted that coyotes (Canis latrans) would respond functionally to numerical increases of neonate white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) during the pulsed resource event of parturition. We used howl surveys and deer camera surveys with occupancy modeling to estimate densities for coyotes, adult deer, and fawns, respectively, in Upper Peninsula of Michigan, USA, 2009–2011. We estimated biomass of adult and fawn deer consumed by coyotes during 2 periods [fawn limited mobility period (LMP) and social mobility period (SMP)] in May–August each year. Coyote densities were 0.32 and 0.37/km² for 2010–2011, respectively. Adult deer densities (3.7–3.9/km²) and fawn densities (0.6–1.3/km²) were similar across years. Overall, fawn hair occurrence in coyote scats was 2.3 times greater in LMP than SMP. Estimated consumption of fawns between periods (n = 157–880) by coyotes varied, suggesting a functional response, with increasing consumption of fawns relative to their availability. Coyotes, on average, consumed 2.2 times greater biomass of fawns than adults across years, and consumed 1.5 times greater fawn biomass, on average, during LMP than SMP. We suggest that consumption rates of coyotes is associated positively with increases in fawn density, and fawn consumption by coyotes follows predictions of optimal foraging theory during this pulsed resource event.     

饲养林麝的种群特征和幼麝的存活研究

对饲养在上海崇明岛东平林场的林麝种群特征以及1998～2000 年间该种群所出生的74 只幼麝存活情况进行分析研究。结果表明: 该林麝种群中能繁殖的个体占51.1 % , 种群数量逐渐增长。种群存活率曲线呈C 型,说明林麝的死亡主要发生在幼麝时期。从不同年龄段性比变化来看, 初生幼麝的性比接近1∶1 , 由于雌幼麝比雄幼麝具有更高的存活率( P < 0.05) , 进入亚成体以后雄性比例逐渐下降, 显示幼麝时期存在偏雄性死亡。早出生幼麝的存活率明显高于晚出生幼麝( P < 0.05) 。引起幼麝死亡的主要原因是疾病(45. 9 %) 。     

Sarcocystis hemionilatrantis (Sp. N.) life cycle in mule deer and coyotes.

Fifteen coyotes (Canis latrans) shed sporulated sporocysts in their feces after eating freshly ground skeletal muscles from a mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) infected with microscopic-sized cysts of Sarcocystis. Sporocysts were shed intermittently from 12 to 36 days after ingestion of the infected meat. Sporocyst size averaged 14.4 X 9.3 mum. Eleven mule deer fawns orally inoculated with these sporocysts became infected and 9 of 11 died between post-inoculation days (PID) 27 and 63. Clinical signs of anorexia, weight loss, pyrexia and weakness were evident prior to death. A calf (Bos taurus) and two lambs (Ovis aries) orally inoculated with these sporocysts did not become infected and remained healthy throughout the experiments. Similarly, uninoculated control animals consisting of three mule deer fawns, two lambs and one calf remained healthy during the experiment. Preliminary histologic examinations conducted on selected tissues from all animals revealed microscopic-sized schizogonous stages in macrophages, between muscle fibers and near blood vessels in the esophagus, heart, biceps femoris, semi-membranosus, diaphragm and tongue from seven of eight fawns which died between PID 27 and 39. Developing or mature muscle cysts were not found in fawn tissue until PID 60. Sarcocysts were found in the three infected fawns examined after this time. Muscle cysts or earlier schizont stages were not found in tissues from the inoculated or uninoculated calves and lambs. A single muscle cyst was found in one control fawn; the other two control fawns were negative for both muscle cysts and other schizogonous stages. These results established that the life cycle of this species of Sarcocystis can be completed with coyotes as the definitive host and mule deer as the intermediate host. Based on the demonstrated host specificity and earlier findings, the name Sarcocystis hemionilatrantis is proposed for this parasite of mule deer and coyotes.     

Behaviour of brown bears killing wild ungulates in the Cantabrian Mountains,Southwestern Europe

Although brown bears (Ursus arctos) are known to be major predators of ungulates in North America and Northern Europe, there is little documentation regarding bear predation on wild ungulates in Southern Europe. We describe search, detection, killing and prey consumption behaviour by brown bears during seven attacks on <1-month roe deer, red deer and chamois fawns in spring in the Cantabrian Mountains, north-western Spain. As soon as the bears detected a fawn by their smell or their mother's presence, they switched from routine foraging on plants and insects to an intensive search for the fawns, mainly using smell to comb a 0.5–1 ha area for 15–45 min. They killed the fawns either while the latter were resting or after a brief chase. The bears usually took their prey to dense vegetation, consuming it immediately. In four cases, 5-month-old cubs accompanying the female did not participate in the hunt. We also document the apparently non-predatory killing of a 40-kg wild boar by a female bear with cubs surprised by a sudden encounter. They did not eat the boar after the attack.     

Seroconversion rates to Jamestown Canyon virus among six populations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Indiana

The annual seroconversion of fawns, yearlings, and adult white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to Jamestown Canyon virus (California group) was followed at six Indiana sites from 1981 through 1984. In all, sera from 1,642 deer (515 fawns, 618 yearlings, and 509 adults) were tested for neutralizing antibody to three California serogroup viruses: Jamestown Canyon, La Crosse, and trivittatus. Virtually all deer with specific neutralizing antibody showed evidence of a prior infection with Jamestown Canyon virus; only three deer showed evidence of a prior infection with only La Crosse virus and none showed evidence of an infection with only trivittatus virus. While there were no significant differences in antibody prevalence to Jamestown Canyon virus between yearling and adult deer at any site, fawns had significantly lower antibody prevalences than either of the two older age groups. Significant differences in antibody prevalence were found between northern versus southern populations of white-tailed deer in Indiana, however, no significant differences were found among the four northern populations or between the two southern populations. The mean antibody prevalences in the two southern fawn, yearling, and adult populations were 15%, 38%, and 41% respectively, while the prevalences in the four northern fawn, yearling, and adult populations were 5%, 67%, and 67% respectively. These different prevalences (northern vs. southern) correlate with the higher Jamestown Canyon virus antibody prevalence in human residents of northern Indiana (2-15%) compared to residents of southern Indiana (less than 2%) found in other studies. The significantly lower prevalence of antibody to Jamestown Canyon virus in fawns is attributed to maternal antibody protecting them from a primary infection their first summer. Yearling deer showed high rates of seroconversion following their second summer of life. These results suggest that infection of white-tailed deer in Indiana with Jamestown Canyon virus is a common phenomenon.     

Experimental adenovirus hemorrhagic disease in white-tailed deer fawns

Infection with a newly described endotheliotropic adenovirus was the cause of a 1993 epizootic reminiscent of hemorrhagic disease in California mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus and O. hemionus hemionus). Pulmonary edema and intestinal luminal hemorrhage, or necrotizing stomatitis associated with systemic or localized vasculitis, respectively, were common lesions seen in animals that died during the epizootic. In order to determine if white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) also are susceptible to infection and fatal disease with the deer adenovirus, eight white-tailed deer fawns (4- to 6-mo-old) were inoculated with purified deer adenovirus. Four were inoculated intravenously and four were inoculated through the mucous membranes. Seven days post-inoculation, one of the fawns inoculated intravenously died. Pulmonary edema and hemorrhagic enteropathy were associated with pulmonary and intestinal vasculitis with systemic multiorgan distribution of endotheliotropic adenovirus as demonstrated by transmission electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry. Adenovirus was reisolated from lung homogenates of the fawn that died of adenovirus hemorrhagic disease.     

Increased brown bear predation on sika deer fawns following a deer population irruption in eastern Hokkaido, Japan

By the 1970s, brown bears (Ursus arctos) in Hokkaido, northern Japan, were opportunistic omnivores that mainly depended on plant materials. Because the sika deer (Cervus nippon) population irrupted in eastern Hokkaido in the 1990s, we expected that brown bears might prey on sika deer fawns. First, we developed a simple and cost-effective method of monitoring possible bear predation on deer fawns by analyzing the widths of deer hairs remained in bear scats. Based on hair thickness standards, we distinguished the brown bear consumption of deer fawns from adults by analyzing bear scats (n?=?108) collected during the deer birthing season (late May?Clate July) in 1999?C2008. To evaluate the importance of fawns to bears, we compared the occurrence of fawn and adult deer hairs in bear scats among three periods (I, 1999?C2000; II, 2003?C2005; III, 2006?C2008) in eastern Hokkaido. The occurrence of fawn hairs in bear scats increased from 12.5 to 27.3?% in volume and from 6.3 to 33.6?% in frequency from period I to period III, whereas adult hairs in scats decreased from 42.8 to 26.1?% in volume and from 34.4 to 22.7?% in frequency during the same time. These data suggest that bears increasingly preyed on deer fawns after the deer population irruption and decreasingly used adult carcasses because of the enforcement of deer carcass treatment by the Hokkaido government.     

The effect of environmental gradients on the bed site selection of roe deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>)

A wildlife species’ selection of bedding sites is often characterised by strong trade-offs, as habitat quality, predator avoidance and foraging needs should be achieved simultaneously. Human activities often represent major threats in addition. In areas of intensive agriculture, e.g. mowing is one of the main causes of mortality of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) fawns due their hiding strategy. For a species’ offspring, the selection of bedding sites is particularly crucial and thus, identifying how and when animals use such habitats is important for management. We used a long-term dataset of marked roe deer fawns in Switzerland (1971–2015) to reveal the characteristics of optimal bedding sites within the first two weeks of a fawn’s life in three contrasting landscapes and the potential trade-offs that may occur. We hypothesised that roe deer adjust the selection of bedding sites to current environmental conditions and available habitat to achieve sufficient levels of predator avoidance and thermoregulation necessary for the fawn’s survival, as well as the availability of sufficient food resources for the mother doe. We found that, in general, grassland habitats with medium vegetation height (20–50 cm) and habitats in close proximity to the edge of the forest were favoured to achieve those basic requirements. However, the use of bed site habitats differed between the three contrasting landscapes in dependence of elevation and hence vegetation phenology. Our results provide essential information to reduce mortality rates caused by mowing and improve the reproductive success of this species.     

Density-dependent responses of fawn cohort body mass in two contrasting roe deer populations

We investigated the influence of population density on juvenile body mass in two contrasting roe deer populations, in Sweden (Bogesund) and France (Chizé), in which density was monitored for ≥15 years. We investigated the effect of population density and climatic conditions on cohort performance. We predicted that: (1) body mass of growing fawns should be sensitive to environmental changes, showing marked between-year variation (i.e., cohort effects), (2) fawns in the less productive (weakly seasonal, weakly predictable summer weather) habitat of Chizé should show stronger density-dependent responses due to more severe food competition during summer than fawns in the more productive (markedly seasonal, moderately predictable summer weather) habitat of Bogesund, and (3) fawns at Bogesund should be heavier both in absolute terms and relative to their size than their conspecifics in Chizé due to a higher degree of fat accumulation in northern environments. In both study sites we found marked cohort variation and clear effects of density, with body mass varying by as much as 29% over years. While neither summer nor winter climate influenced fawn body mass at Bogesund, fawns tended to be lighter after summers with high temperatures at Chizé. In addition, fawns were heavier after acorn mast years experienced in utero at Bogesund. As expected, the strength of the density-dependent response of fawn body mass was greater at Chizé than at Bogesund. For a given density, male fawns were consistently heavier than females in both sites. Lastly, both sexes at Bogesund had higher absolute body mass and were larger for a given body size than in Chizé. Our results clearly demonstrate that absolute density is a poor predictor of roe deer performance and supports the view that habitat quality has an overwhelming importance for determining fawn body mass in roe deer populations.     

Predator densities and white-tailed deer fawn survival

Predation is the dominant source of mortality for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) <6 months old throughout North America. Yet, few white-tailed deer fawn survival studies have occurred in areas with 4 predator species or have considered concurrent densities of deer and predator species. We monitored survival and cause-specific mortality from birth to 6 months for 100 neonatal fawns during 2013–2015 in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, USA, while simultaneously estimating population densities of deer, American black bear (Ursus americanus), coyote (Canis latrans), bobcat (Lynx rufus), and gray wolf (Canis lupus). We estimated fawn predation risk in response to sex, birth mass, and date of birth. Six-month fawn survival pooled among years was 36%, and fawn mortality risk was not related to birth mass, date of birth, or sex. Estimated mean annual deer and predator densities were 334 fawns/100 km², 25.9 black bear/100 km², 23.8 coyotes/100 km², 3.8 bobcat/100 km², and 2.8 wolves/100 km². Despite lower estimated per-individual kill rates, coyotes and black bears were the leading sources of fawn mortality because they had greater densities relative to bobcats and wolves. Our results indicate that the presence of more predator species in a system is not entirely additive in its effect on fawn survival. © The Wildlife Society, 2019     

White‐tailed deer exploit temporal refuge from multi‐predator and human risks on roads

Although most prey have multiple predator species, few studies have quantified how prey respond to the temporal niches of multiple predators which pose different levels of danger. For example, intraspecific variation in diel activity allows white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to reduce fawn activity overlap with coyotes (Canis latrans) but finding safe times of day may be more difficult for fawns in a multi‐predator context. We hypothesized that within a multi‐predator system, deer would allocate antipredation behavior optimally based on combined mortality risk from multiple sources, which would vary depending on fawn presence. We measured cause‐specific mortality of 777 adult (>1‐year‐old) and juvenile (1–4‐month‐old) deer and used 300 remote cameras to estimate the activity of deer, humans, and predators including American black bears (Ursus americanus), bobcats (Lynx rufus), coyotes, and wolves (Canis lupus). Predation and vehicle collisions accounted for 5.3 times greater mortality in juveniles (16% mortality from bears, coyotes, bobcats, wolves, and vehicles) compared with adults (3% mortality from coyotes, wolves, and vehicles). Deer nursery groups (i.e., ≥1 fawn present) were more diurnal than adult deer without fawns, causing fawns to have 24–38% less overlap with carnivores and 39% greater overlap with humans. Supporting our hypothesis, deer nursery groups appeared to optimize diel activity to minimize combined mortality risk. Temporal refuge for fawns was likely the result of carnivores avoiding humans, simplifying diel risk of five species into a trade‐off between diurnal humans and nocturnal carnivores. Functional redundancy among multiple predators with shared behaviors may partially explain why white‐tailed deer fawn predation rates are often similar among single‐ and multi‐predator systems.     

Predation processes: behavioural interactions between red fox and roe deer during the fawning season

Predation by red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the most important mortality cause for neonatal roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in Scandinavia. With the objective of investigating how the fox finds fawns and how antipredatory behaviour of roe deer females influences choice of hunting method, I analysed observations of interactions between red fox and roe deer females. The observations were collected over 14 years in a mixed forest/agricultural landscape in Sweden. Of 49 fox–doe encounters, the doe attacked the fox in 59%. In 90% of these attacks the fox was successfully deterred. In two observations a doe saved a fawn attacked by a fox. Two hunting methods used by the fox were discerned. In 28 cases foxes searched the ground, and in 18 cases they surveyed open areas, often from a forest edge. The latter behaviour seemed more directed at fawns and was seen leading to a capture attempt. Searching seemed less efficient and also difficult to conduct due to the aggressiveness of does. A surveying sit-and-wait type of hunting method thus appeared as the most successful. The possibility to use this method could explain why roe deer fawns are more vulnerable to fox predation in open habitats.     

Demographic crash associated with high parasite load in an experimental roe deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>) population

In March 2002, ten roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) were released in a partly wooded 14.2-ha enclosure to investigate the effect of high population density on vegetation cover and demographic parameters. However, in mid 2003, five animals died after rapid emaciation. Two other deer were killed to carry out further post-mortem examination. In addition to a general loss of body mass and injuries in males caused by the healthiest of them, we found a high level of parasitism. The remaining animals received anti-parasite treatment, and four other treated roe deer were added into the enclosure. All the deer were then captured and treated against parasites twice a year, the fawns being removed when first captured. Four years after the crash, the population seemed healthy: deaths no longer occurred; mean adult body mass reached 27.6 kg in March; females produced on average 1.6 fawns per year, with a mean body mass of 13.8 kg in October and 16.7 kg in March. Furthermore, undergrowth cover changed little since March 2004. These results suggest that outbursts of parasites may cause population crashes in high-density situations before the onset of nutritive stress and may explain certain cases of ‘abnormal’ (massive) mortality recorded in roe deer.     

英国惠普斯耐德獐的育幼行为

1993年5-8月在英国惠普斯耐德野生动物园半自然条件下研究了獐（）的单亲育幼行为。描述了母幼獐建立关系,母獐的探访和育幼行为,授幼行为,舔犊行为以及母幼间距离等。研究结果表明,母獐昼夜间仅探访幼兽4-5次。初生獐寻找乳头时往往寻错位置,找向母獐的前胸和颈区。在幼獐出生后的早期,哺乳行为的启动是由母獐启动的,但幼獐一周龄后即为启动者。平均哺乳时段为48.2±10.2s.母獐的舔犊行为常与哺乳同时发生,舔犊的位置最常见于幼獐的头部（62.7%）,其次是肛殖区（13.9%）,再是背部（8.4%）,肋部（7.2%）,胸部（5.6%）和颈部（2.1%）。此外,还讨论了母兽对不同性别的幼獐的投资的差异及其生物学意义。