Choline transport into rat liver mitochondria. Characterization and kinetics of a specific transporter.

Rat liver mitochondria possess a specific choline transporter in the inner membrane. The transporter shows saturable kinetics at high membrane potential with a Km of 220 microM and a Vmax of 0.4 nmol/mg of protein/min at pH 7.0 and 25 degrees C. At physiological concentrations of choline, the rate of choline uptake by the transporter shows a linear dependence on membrane potential; uptake is distinct from the nonspecific cation diffusion process. Hemicholinium-3, hemicholinium-15, quinine, and quinidine, all analogues of choline, are high affinity competitive inhibitors of choline transport with Ki values of 17, 55, 15, and 127 microM, respectively. The choline transporter is distinct from other known mitochondrial transporters. Rat heart mitochondria do not appear to possess a choline transporter. Evidence suggests that the transporter is an electrophoretic uniporter. Analogue studies have shown that the hydroxyl and the quaternary ammonium groups of choline are necessary for binding to the transporter. A comparison of molecular models of choline and the high affinity inhibitors has provided evidence for the preferred conformation of choline for binding to the transporter. The presence of a choline transporter in the mitochondrial inner membrane provides a potential site for control of choline oxidation and hence supply of endogenous betaine.     

Micromolar changes in lysophosphatidylcholine concentration cause minor effects on mitochondrial permeability but major alterations in function

Mice deficient in group 1b phospholipase A₂ have decreased plasma lysophosphatidylcholine and increased hepatic oxidation that is inhibited by intraperitoneal lysophosphatidylcholine injection. This study sought to identify a mechanism for lysophosphatidylcholine-mediated inhibition of hepatic oxidative function. Results showed that in vitro incubation of isolated mitochondria with 40–200 μM lysophosphatidylcholine caused cyclosporine A-resistant swelling in a concentration-dependent manner. However, when mitochondria were challenged with 220 μM CaCl₂, cyclosporine A protected against permeability transition induced by 40 μM, but not 80 μM lysophosphatidylcholine. Incubation with 40–120 μM lysophosphatidylcholine also increased mitochondrial permeability to 75 μM CaCl₂ in a concentration-dependent manner. Interestingly, despite incubation with 80 μM lysophosphatidylcholine, the mitochondrial membrane potential was steady in the presence of succinate, and oxidation rates and respiratory control indices were similar to controls in the presence of succinate, glutamate/malate, and palmitoyl-carnitine. However, mitochondrial oxidation rates were inhibited by 30–50% at 100 μM lysophosphatidylcholine. Finally, while 40 μM lysophosphatidylcholine has no effect on fatty acid oxidation and mitochondria remained impermeable in intact hepatocytes, 100 μM lysophosphatidylcholine inhibited fatty acid stimulated oxidation and caused intracellular mitochondrial permeability. Taken together, these present data demonstrated that LPC concentration dependently modulates mitochondrial microenvironment, with low micromolar concentrations of lysophosphatidylcholine sufficient to change hepatic oxidation rate whereas higher concentrations are required to disrupt mitochondrial integrity.     

Molecular and functional characterization of choline transporter in rat renal tubule epithelial NRK-52E cells

Homeostatic regulation of the plasma choline concentration depends on the effective functioning of a choline transporter in the kidney. However, the nature of the choline transport system in the kidney is poorly understood. In this study, we examined the molecular and functional characterization of choline uptake in the rat renal tubule epithelial cell line NRK-52E. Choline uptake was saturable and mediated by a single transport system, with an apparent Michaelis-Menten constant (K_m) of 16.5 μM and a maximal velocity (V_max) of 133.9 pmol/mg protein/min. The V_max value of choline uptake was strongly enhanced in the absence of Na⁺ without any change in K_m values. The increase in choline uptake under Na⁺-free conditions was inhibited by Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger (NHE) inhibitors. Choline uptake was inhibited by the choline uptake inhibitor hemicholinium-3 (HC-3) and organic cations, and was decreased by acidification of the extracellular medium and by intracellular alkalinization. Collapse of the plasma membrane H⁺ electrochemical gradient by a protonophore inhibited choline uptake. NRK-52E cells mainly express mRNA for choline transporter-like proteins (CTL1 and CTL2), and NHE1 and NHE8. CTL1 protein was recognized in both plasma membrane and mitochondria. CTL2 protein was mainly expressed in mitochondria. The biochemical and pharmacological data indicated that CTL1 is functionally expressed in NRK-52E cells and is responsible for choline uptake. This choline transport system uses a directed H⁺ gradient as a driving force, and its transport functions in co-operation with NHE8. Furthermore, the presence of CTL2 in mitochondria provides a potential site for the control of choline oxidation.     

Amyloid beta impairs mitochondrial anterograde transport and degenerates synapses in Alzheimer's disease neurons

Loss of synapses and synaptic damage are the best correlates of cognitive decline identified in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), and mitochondrial oxidative damage and synaptic pathology have been identified as early events in the progression of AD. The progressive accumulation of amyloid beta (Aβ) in synapses and synaptic mitochondria are hypothesized to cause synaptic degeneration and cognitive decline in patients with AD. However, the precise mechanistic link between Aβ and mitochondria is not well understood. The purpose of this study was to better understand the effects of Aβ on mitochondrial axonal transport and synaptic alterations in AD. Using mouse hippocampal neurons and Aβ_25-35 peptide, we studied axonal transport of mitochondria, including mitochondrial motility, mitochondrial length and size, mitochondrial index per neurite, and synaptic alterations of the hippocampal neurons. In the PBS-treated neurons, 36.4 ± 4.7% of the observed mitochondria were motile, with 21.0 ± 1.3% moving anterograde and 15.4 ± 3.4% moving retrograde and the average speed of movement was 12.1 ± 1.8 μm/min. In contrast, in the Aβ-treated neurons, the number of motile mitochondria were significantly less, at 20.4 ± 2.6% (P < 0.032), as were those moving anterograde (10.1 ± 2.6%, P < 0.016) relative to PBS-treated neurons, suggesting that the Aβ_25-35 peptide impairs axonal transport of mitochondria in AD neurons. In the Aβ-treated neurons, the average speed of motile mitochondria was also less, at 10.9 ± 1.9 μm/min, and mitochondrial length was significantly decreased. Further, synaptic immunoreactivity was also significantly less in the Aβ-treated neurons relative to the PBS-treated neurons, indicating that Aβ affects synaptic viability. These findings suggest that, in neurons affected by AD, Aβ is toxic, impairs mitochondrial movements, reduces mitochondrial length, and causes synaptic degeneration.     

Betaine is a highly effective organic osmolyte but does not appear to be transported by established organic osmolyte transporters in mouse embryos

Betaine protects early preimplantation mouse embryos against increased osmolarity in vitro, functioning as an organic osmolyte. Betaine is effective at very low external concentrations, with half-maximal protection of 1-cell embryo development to blastocysts at approximately 50 microM, making it one of the best osmoprotectants for mouse preimplantation embryos. We performed studies designed to determine whether known high-affinity organic osmolyte transporters could account for the ability of betaine to act as an organic osmolyte in preimplantation embryos. We found no evidence in 1-cell embryos of transport by a betaine/GABA transporter (BGT1), the osmoregulated betaine transporter found in a number of cell types, as betaine and GABA did not inhibit each other's transport. Instead, all saturable GABA transport in embryos was apparently via the beta-amino acid transporter. We also found that the glycine transporter, GLY, which mediates osmoprotective transport of glycine in early preimplantation embryos, does not appear to transport betaine. Finally, increased osmolarity did not induce any detectable System A amino acid transporter activity, which is osmotically-inducible in other cells and can transport betaine. There does appear, however, to be a saturable betaine transporter in 1-cell mouse embryos, as considerable 14C-betaine transport was measured which was substantially inhibited by excess unlabeled betaine. Our data imply that betaine functions as an organic osmolyte in embryos due to its saturable transport via a mechanism distinct from known osmolyte transporters. We propose that an unidentified high-affinity betaine transporter may be expressed in early embryos and mediate transport of betaine as an organic osmolyte.     

Assessment of newly synthesized mitochondrial DNA using BrdU labeling in primary neurons from Alzheimer's disease mice: Implications for impaired mitochondrial biogenesis and synaptic damage

The purpose of our study was to assess mitochondrial biogenesis and distribution in murine primary neurons. Using 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation and primary neurons, we studied the mitochondrial biogenesis and mitochondrial distribution in hippocampal neurons from amyloid beta precursor protein (AβPP) transgenic mice and wild-type (WT) neurons treated with oxidative stressors, rotenone and H₂O₂. We found that after 20 h of labeling, BrdU incorporation was specific to porin-positive mitochondria. The proportion of mitochondrial area labeled with BrdU was 40.3 ± 6.3% at 20 h. The number of mitochondria with newly synthesized DNA was higher in AβPP neuronal cell bodies than in the cell bodies of WT neurons (AβPP, 45.23 ± 2.67 BrdU-positive/cell body; WT, 32.92 ± 2.49 BrdU-positive/cell body; p = 0.005). In neurites, the number of BrdU-positive mitochondria decreased in AβPP cultures compared to WT neurons (AβPP, 0.105 ± 0.008 BrdU-positive/μm neurite; WT, 0.220 ± 0.036 BrdU-positive/μm neurite; p = 0.010). Further, BrdU in the cell body increased when neurons were treated with low doses of H₂O₂ (49.6 ± 2.7 BrdU-positive/cell body, p = 0.0002 compared to untreated cells), while the neurites showed decreased BrdU staining (0.122 ± 0.010 BrdU-positive/μm neurite, p = 0.005 compared to the untreated). BrdU labeling was increased in the cell body under rotenone treatment. Additionally, under rotenone treatment, the content of BrdU labeling decreased in neurites. These findings suggest that Aβ and mitochondrial toxins enhance mitochondrial fragmentation in the cell body, and may cause impaired axonal transport of mitochondria leading to synaptic degeneration.     

Choline and betaine aldehyde oxidation by rat liver mitochondria

1. The question of the ability or inability of rat liver mitochondria to oxidize externally added or internally generated betaine aldehyde has been reexamined. Well washed mitochondria were demonstrated to contain approx. 7% of the post-nuclear betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase as an integral component. The enzyme is approximately equally distributed between the inner membrane and the intermembrane plus matrix fractions. Significantly, none was found in the outer membrane fraction. The mitochondrial enzyme was shown to be functional under all the conditions tested; betaine aldehyde generated within the mitochondria by choline oxidation or added externally was oxidized to betaine in significant amounts.

2. The stoichiometry for the complete oxidation of choline or externally added betaine aldehyde was confirmed to be 2 and 1 moles, respectively, of O₂ utilized per mole of substrate added. Depending on the reaction conditions employed, considerable variation in the relative amount of choline oxidase and betaine aldehyde oxidase activities of mitochondria was observed when they were allowed to oxidize only a portion of the choline added. The necessity of measuring the contribution of betaine aldehyde oxidase in studies of choline oxidase is discussed.

3. Reasons for the discrepancies in the literature concerning the ability of mitochondria to oxidize betaine aldehyde are discussed.     

Application of modular kinetic analysis to mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation in skeletal muscle of birds exposed to acute heat stress

We previously showed that heat stress stimulates reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in skeletal muscle mitochondria of birds, probably via an elevation in mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ). To clarify the mechanism underlying the elevation of ΔΨ, modular kinetic analysis was applied to oxidative phosphorylation in skeletal muscle mitochondria of heat-stressed birds (34 °C for 12 h). In the birds exposed to heat stress, ‘substrate oxidation’ (a ΔΨ-producer) was increased compared to control (24 °C) birds, although there was little difference in ‘proton leak’ (a ΔΨ-consumer), suggesting that an elevation in the ΔΨ at state 4 may be due to enhanced substrate oxidation. It thus appears that enhanced substrate oxidation plays a crucial role in the overproduction of ROS for heat-stressed birds, probably via elevated ΔΨ.     

Regulation of respiration controlled by mitochondrial creatine kinase in permeabilized cardiac cells in situ: Importance of system level properties

The main focus of this investigation is steady state kinetics of regulation of mitochondrial respiration in permeabilized cardiomyocytes in situ. Complete kinetic analysis of the regulation of respiration by mitochondrial creatine kinase was performed in the presence of pyruvate kinase and phosphoenolpyruvate to simulate interaction of mitochondria with glycolytic enzymes. Such a system analysis revealed striking differences in kinetic behaviour of the MtCK-activated mitochondrial respiration in situ and in vitro. Apparent dissociation constants of MgATP from its binary and ternary complexes with MtCK, K_ia and K_a (1.94 ± 0.86 mM and 2.04 ± 0.14 mM, correspondingly) were increased by several orders of magnitude in situ in comparison with same constants in vitro (0.44 ± 0.08 mM and 0.016 ± 0.01 mM, respectively). Apparent dissociation constants of creatine, K_ib and K_b (2.12 ± 0.21 mM 2.17 ± 0.40 Mm, correspondingly) were significantly decreased in situ in comparison with in vitro mitochondria (28 ± 7 mM and 5 ± 1.2 mM, respectively). Dissociation constant for phosphocreatine was not changed. These data may indicate selective restriction of metabolites' diffusion at the level of mitochondrial outer membrane. It is concluded that mechanisms of the regulation of respiration and energy fluxes in vivo are system level properties which depend on intracellular interactions of mitochondria with cytoskeleton, intracellular MgATPases and cytoplasmic glycolytic system.     

Succinimidyl oleate, established inhibitor of CD36/FAT translocase inhibits complex III of mitochondrial respiratory chain

The functional role of CD36 protein detected in mitochondrial fractions in long chain fatty acid (LCFA) oxidation is unclear due to conflicting results obtained in Cd36 knockout mice and experiments using sulfo-N-succinimidyl oleate (SSO) for inhibition of CD36 mediated LCFA transport. We investigated effect of SSO on mitochondrial respiration and found that SSO substantially inhibits not only LCFA oxidation, but also oxidation of flavoprotein- and NADH-dependent substrates and generation of mitochondrial membrane potential. Experiments in rat liver, heart and kidney mitochondria demonstrated a direct effect on mitochondrial respiratory chain with the most pronounced inhibition of the complex III (IC₅₀ 4 μM SSO). The results presented here show that SSO is a potent and irreversible inhibitor of mitochondrial respiratory chain.     

Reduced mitochondrial and ascorbate–glutathione activity after artificial ageing in soybean seed

The effect of artificial ageing on the relationship between mitochondrial activities and the antioxidant system was studied in soybean seeds (Glycine max L. cv. Zhongdou No. 27). Ageing seeds for 18 d and 41 d at 40 °C reduced germination from 99% to 52% and 0%, respectively. In comparison to the control, malondialdehyde content and leachate conductivity in aged seeds increased and were associated with membrane damage. Transmission electron microscopy and Percoll density gradient centrifugation showed that aged seeds mainly contained poorly developed mitochondria in which respiration and marker enzymes activities were significantly reduced. Heavy mitochondria isolated from the interface of the 21% and 40% Percoll were analyzed. Mitochondrial antioxidant enzymes activities including superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione reductase, monodehydroascorbate reductase, and dehydroascorbate reductase were significantly reduced in aged seeds. A decrease in total ascorbic acid (ASC) and glutathione (GSH) content as well as the reduced/oxidized ratio of ASC and GSH in mitochondria with prolonged ageing showed that artificial ageing reduced ASC–GSH cycle activity. These results suggested an elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) level in the aged seeds, which was confirmed by measurements of superoxide radical and hydrogen peroxide levels. We conclude that mitochondrial dysfunction in artificially aged seeds is due to retarded mitochondrial and ASC-GSH cycle activity and elevated ROS accumulation.     

Uncoupler-stimulated oxidation of choline by rat-liver mitochondria

The main product of uncoupler-stimulated oxidation of choline by rat-liver mitochondria is betaine, which is found almost exclusively extramitochondrially. The uncoupled oxidation of choline is stimulated by intramitochondrial phosphate. The effect of intramitochondrial phosphate is to induce adenine nucleotide efflux, which in its turn allows the efflux of betaine from the mitochondria.     

Toxicity of depleted uranium on isolated rat kidney mitochondria

Background

Kidney is known as the most sensitive target organ for depleted uranium (DU) toxicity in comparison to other organs. Although the oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage induced by DU has been well investigated, the precise mechanism of DU-induced nephrotoxicity has not been thoroughly recognized yet.

Methods

Kidney mitochondria were obtained using differential centrifugation from Wistar rats and mitochondrial toxicity endpoints were then determined in both in vivo and in vitro uranyl acetate (UA) exposure cases.

Results

Single injection of UA (0, 0.5, 1 and 2 mg/kg, i.p.) caused a significant increase in blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels. Isolated mitochondria from the UA-treated rat kidney showed a marked elevation in oxidative stress accompanied by mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) collapse as compared to control group. Incubation of isolated kidney mitochondria with UA (50, 100 and 200 μM) manifested that UA can disrupt the electron transfer chain at complex II and III that leads to induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, lipid peroxidation, and glutathione oxidation. Disturbances in oxidative phosphorylation were also demonstrated through decreased ATP concentration and ATP/ADP ratio in UA-treated mitochondria. In addition, UA induced a significant damage in mitochondrial outer membrane. Moreover, MMP collapse, mitochondrial swelling and cytochrome c release were observed following the UA treatment in isolated mitochondria.

General significance

Both our in vivo and in vitro results showed that UA-induced nephrotoxicity is linked to the impairment of electron transfer chain especially at complex II and III which leads to subsequent oxidative stress.     

Structure and conformation of the disulfide bond in dimeric lung surfactant peptides SP-B1-25 and SP-B8-25

Raman spectroscopy was used to determine the conformation of the disulfide linkage between cysteine residues in the homodimeric construct of the N-terminal alpha helical domain of surfactant protein B (dSP-B_1-25). The conformation of the disulfide bond between cysteine residues in position 8 of the homodimer of dSP-B_1-25 was compared with that of a truncated homodimer (dSP-B_8-25) of the peptide having a disulfide linkage at the same position in the alpha helix. Temperature-dependent Raman spectra of the S-S stretching region centered at ∼ 500 cm^− 1 indicated a stable, although highly strained disulfide conformation with a χ(CS-SC) dihedral angle of ± 10° for the dSP-B_1-25 dimer. In contrast, the truncated dimer dSP-B_8-25 exhibited a series of disulfide conformations with the χ(CS-SC) dihedral angle taking on values of either ± 30° or 85± 20°. For conformations with χ(CS-SC) close to the ± 90° value, the Raman spectra of the 8-25 truncated dimers exhibited χ(SS-CC) dihedral angles of 90/180° and 20-30°. In the presence of a lipid mixture, both constructs showed a ν(S-S) band at ∼ 488 cm^− 1, corresponding to a χ(CS-SC) dihedral angle of ± 10°. Polarized infrared spectroscopy was also used to determine the orientation of the helix and β-sheet portion of both synthetic peptides. These calculations indicated that the helix was oriented primarily in the plane of the surface, at an angle of ∼ 60-70° to the surface normal, while the β structure had ∼ 40° tilt. This orientation direction did not change in the presence of a lipid mixture or with temperature. These observations suggest that: (i) the conformational flexibility of the disulfide linkage is dependent on the amino acid residues that flank the cysteine disulfide bond, and (ii) in both constructs, the presence of a lipid matrix locks the disulfide bond into a preferred conformation.     

Development and characterization of magnetic cationic liposomes for targeting tumor microvasculature

Cationic liposomes preferentially target tumor vasculature compared to vessels in normal tissues. The distribution of cationic liposomes along vascular networks is, however, patchy and heterogeneous. To target vessels more uniformly we combined the electrostatic properties of cationic liposomes with the strength of an external magnet. We report part I of development. We evaluated bilayer physical properties of our preparations. We investigated interaction of liposomes with target cells including the role of PEG (polyethylene-glycol), and determined whether magnetic cationic liposomes can respond to an external magnetic field. The inclusion of relatively high concentration of MAG-C (magnetite) at 2.5 mg/ml significantly increased the size of cationic liposomes from 105 ± 26.64 to 267 ± 27.43 nm and reduced the zeta potential from 64.55 ± 16.68 to 39.82 ± 5.26 mv. The phase transition temperature of cationic liposomes (49.97 ± 1.34 °C) reduced with inclusion of MAG-C (46.05 ± 0.21 °C). MAG-C cationic liposomes were internalized by melanoma (B16-F10 and HTB-72) and dermal endothelial (HMVEC-d) cells. PEG partially shielded cationic charge potential of MAG-C cationic liposomes, reduced their ability to interact with target cells in vitro, and uptake by major RES organs. Finally, application of external magnet enhanced tumor retention of magnetic cationic liposomes.     

N-linked glycosylation and its impact on the electrophoretic mobility and function of the human proton-coupled folate transporter (HsPCFT)

The human proton-coupled folate transporter (HsPCFT, SLC46A1) mediates intestinal absorption of folates and transport of folates into the liver, brain and other tissues. On Western blot, HsPCFT migrates as a broad band (~ 55 kDa), higher than predicted (~ 50 kDa) in cell lines. Western blot analysis required that membrane preparations not be incubated in the loading buffer above 50 °C to avoid aggregation of the protein. Treatment of membrane fractions from HsPCFT-transfected HeLa cells with peptidyl N-glycanase F, or cells with tunicamycin, resulted in conversion to a ~ 35 kDa species. Substitution of asparagine residues of two canonical glycosylation sites to glutamine, individually, yielded a ~ 47 kDa protein; substitution of both sites gave a smaller (~ 35 kDa) protein. Single mutants retained full transport activity; the double mutant retained a majority of activity. Transport function and molecular size were unchanged when the double mutant was hemagglutinin (HA) tagged at either the NH₂ or COOH terminus and probed with an anti-HA antibody excluding degradation of the deglycosylated protein. Wild-type or deglycosylated HsPCFT HA, tagged at amino or carboxyl termini, could only be visualized on the plasma membrane when HeLa cells were first permeabilized, consistent with the intracellular location of these domains.     

The Contribution of a Covalently Bound Cofactor to the Folding and Thermodynamic Stability of an Integral Membrane Protein

The factors controlling the stability, folding, and dynamics of integral membrane proteins are not fully understood. The high stability of the membrane protein bacteriorhodopsin (bR), an archetypal member of the rhodopsin photoreceptor family, has been ascribed to its covalently bound retinal cofactor. We investigate here the role of this cofactor in the thermodynamic stability and folding kinetics of bR. Multiple spectroscopic probes were used to determine the kinetics and energetics of protein folding in mixed lipid/detergent micelles in the presence and absence of retinal. The presence of retinal increases extrapolated values for the overall unfolding free energy from 6.3 ± 0.4 kcal mol^− 1 to 23.4 ± 1.5 kcal mol^− 1 at zero denaturant, suggesting that the cofactor contributes 17.1 kcal mol^− 1 towards the overall stability of bR. In addition, the cooperativity of equilibrium unfolding curves is markedly reduced in the absence of retinal with overall m-values decreasing from 31.0 ± 2.0 kcal mol^− 1 to 10.9 ± 1.0 kcal mol^− 1, indicating that the folded state of the apoprotein is less compact than the equivalent for the holoprotein. This change in the denaturant response means that the difference in the unfolding free energy at a denaturant concentration midway between the two unfolding curves is only ca 3-6 kcal mol^− 1. Kinetic data show that the decrease in stability upon removal of retinal is associated with an increase in the apparent intrinsic rate constant of unfolding, k_u^H2O, from ~1 × 10^− 16 s^− 1 to ~1 × 10^− 4 s^− 1 at 25 °C. This correlates with a decrease in the unfolding activation energy by 16.3 kcal mol^− 1 in the apoprotein, extrapolated to zero SDS. These results suggest that changes in bR stability induced by retinal binding are mediated solely by changes in the activation barrier for unfolding. The results are consistent with a model in which bR is kinetically stabilized via a very slow rate of unfolding arising from protein-retinal interactions that increase the rigidity and compactness of the polypeptide chain.     

Control of choline oxidation by rat-liver mitochondria

The steady-state concentrations of choline and its reaction products in intact rat-liver mitochondria were determined under different conditions. From these measurements, it is concluded that in a sucrose medium choline dehydrogenation and betaine aldehyde dehydrogenation are the rate-limiting steps in overall choline oxidation under “State-3” or uncoupled conditions, respectively.Ageing of the mitochondria leads to changes in the mitochondrial membrane, resulting in a markedly different pattern of oxidation products. This finding explains why rotenone inhibits oxygen uptake with choline as substrate in fresh but not in aged mitochondria.     

Dopamine modulates mitochondrial function in viable SH-SY5Y cells possibly via its interaction with complex I: Relevance to dopamine pathology in schizophrenia

Deleterious effects of dopamine (DA) involving mitochondrial dysfunction have an important role in DA-associated neuronal disorders, including schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease. DA detrimental effects have been attributed to its ability to be auto-oxidized to toxic reactive oxygen species. Since, unlike Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia does not involve neurodegenerative processes, we suggest a novel mechanism by which DA impairs mitochondrial function without affecting cell viability. DA significantly dissipated mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψ_m) in SH-SY5Y cells. Bypassing complex I prevented the DA-induced depolarization. Moreover, DA inhibited complex I but not complex II activity in disrupted mitochondria, suggesting complex I participation in DA-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. We further demonstrated that intact mitochondria can accumulate DA in a saturated manner, with an apparent K_m = 122.1 ± 28.6 nM and V_max = 1.41 ± 0.15 pmol/mg protein/min, thereby enabling the interaction between DA and complex I. DA accumulation was an energy and Na⁺-dependent process. The pharmacological profile of mitochondrial DA uptake differed from that of other characterized DA transporters. Finally, relevance to schizophrenia is demonstrated by an abnormal interaction between DA and complex I in schizophrenic patients. These results suggest a non-lethal interaction between DA and mitochondria possibly via complex I, which can better explain DA-related pathological processes observed in non-degenerative disorders, such as schizophrenia.     

Control of choline oxidation by rat-liver mitochondria.

The steady-state concentrations of choline and its reaction products in intact rat-liver mitochondria were determined under different conditions. From these measurements, it is concluded that in a sucrose medium choline dehydrogenation and betaine aldehyde dehydrogenation are the rate-limiting steps in overall choline oxidation under "State-3" or uncoupled conditions, respectively. Ageing of the mitochondria leads to changes in the mitochondrial membrane, resulting in a markedly different pattern of oxidation products. This finding explains why rotenone inhibits oxygen uptake with choline as substrate in fresh but not in aged mitochondria.