Digital dermatoglyphic patterns of Eskimo and Amerindian populations: relationships between geographic, dermatoglyphic, genetic, and linguistic distances.

Dermatoglyphic traits have been used to assess population affinities and structure. Here, we describe the digital patterns of four Eskimo populations from Alaska: two Yupik-speaking villages from St. Lawrence Island and two Inupik groups presently residing on mainland Alaska. For a broader evolutionary perspective, these four Eskimo populations are compared to other Inuit groups, to North American Indian populations, and to Siberian aggregates. The genetic structures of 18 New and Old World populations were explored using R-matrix plots and Wright's FST values. The relationships between dermatoglyphic, blood genetic, geographic, and linguistic distances were assessed by comparing matrices through Mantel correlations and through partial and multiple correlations. Statistically significant relationships between dermatoglyphics and genetics, genetics and geography, and geography and language were revealed. In addition, significant correlations between dermatoglyphics and geography, with linguistic variation constant, were noted for females but not for males. These results attest to the usefulness of dermatoglyphics in resolving various evolutionary questions concerning normal human variation.     

Dermatoglyphic variation among Finno-Ugric speaking populations: methodological alternatives.

Utilization of dermatoglyphics for population studies is apparently increasing, but methods vary widely among investigators. We investigate how different types of dermatoglyphic data can affect estimates of biological distance among Finno-Ugric speaking populations. Dermatoglyphic distances were calculated using the following categories of traits: 1) Finger ridge-counts (radial and ulnar count for each digit), 2) finger ridge-counts (largest count for each digit), 3) finger pattern types, 4) palm ridge-counts, 5) palm patterns, and 6) main-line terminations. In addition, we compare our distances with those of Heet, which rely heavily on summary characters. Distances are evaluated by comparing them to each other and to language and geographic distances. There is considerable variation in the pattern of relationships resulting from the different variable sets. Finger variables, whether ridge-counts or pattern classifications, agree well with each other. Palm patterns, main-lines, and finger variables show moderate agreement with each other, while palm ridge-counts agree poorly with all variable sets except main-lines. Heet's distances agree poorly with all other dermatoglyphic distances. Finger patterns and main-lines are most closely related to language distances, after controlling for geography, while correlations with geography generally disappear after controlling for language. Heet's distances have weak associations with language and geography. Finger variables and palm main-lines yield results which agree best with historical relationships among Finno-Ugric populations. Our results make it very clear that utilization of dermatoglyphics in population studies requires careful consideration of methods, and that summary measures of quantitative or qualitative data should be used with caution.     

Population structure and anthropometric variation in rural western Ireland: Isolation by distance and analysis of the residuals

The study of human population structure allows the assessment of cultural and historical influences on mating probabilities, and, hence, genetic variation. A commonly used model is isolation by distance, which predicts a negative exponential relationship between genetic similarity and geographic distance. Anthropometric data collected during the 1930's for 261 adult women in 12 towns of rural western Ireland were used to test the isolation by distance model and to assess the influence of cultural factors upon the fit of the model. The effects of recent migration were tested by using two additional data subsets, one excluding known intercounty migrants and the other consisting of unmarried women, only in an attempt to control partially for local migration upon marriage. Deviations from the expected isolation by distance model were analyzed using rotational fitting and regression analysis. Estimates of the isolation by distance parameters agree closely with independent estimates from isonymy and with estimates obtained in other studies of rural European population structure. Analysis of the residuals indicates three major factors which contribute to deviations from the expected model: recent migration upon marriage, age variation among groups, and variation in population size and/or transportation opportunities. Variation in population size was tested using the gravity model of economic geography by regressing the residuals from the isolation by distance model for each pair of towns on the product of their population sizes. The best fit occurred for the unmarried sample, as expected from ethnographic evidence, since rural–urban migration was most common among unmarried women.     

Sole dermatoglyphics in the forest Nentsy,Nganasans, and Chukchi: Dermatoglyphic distances

Sole dermatoglyphics of the aborigines of Northwestern Siberia, Taimir, and Kamchatka are presented in this paper. The distance coefficients based on various combinations of dermatoglyphic traits depending on their heritability were estimated. These were compared with the overall dermatoglyphic distance coefficients as well as with the genetic (dermatoglyphic) distance coefficients based on six blood groups (ABO, MNSs, P, Fy, Jk, Kp). Genetic interpretation of the distances was attempted in connection with analysis of differences or similarities between these populations.     

Palmar pattern frequencies as indicators of relationships among Sardinian linguistic groups of males

Palmar pattern frequencies were used to calculate distance coefficients between Sardinian linguistic groups of males for the purpose of verifying, by means of correlation matrix analyses, whether or not the dermatoglyphic traits considered lead to a reliable identification of the biological relationships on the basis of the linguistic backgrounds of these groups. With Sanghvi's as the distance measure and by using palmar pattern frequencies in the Hy area, Th/I, II, III, and IV interdigital areas and all traits together for palms combined or separated were calculated dermatoglyphic distance measures. Mantel tests of matrix correspondence showed that, by using palmar pattern frequencies in the Th/I interdigital area (palms combined), in the II, III, and IV interdigital areas, or all traits together for palms combined and separated, statistical significance between dermatoglyphic and linguistic distances can be obtained, even when the effect of geography is removed; there is no statistically significant correspondence between geographic and dermatoglyphic distance matrices, even when the effect of language is removed. The results obtained in this study by means of the Mantel test procedure demonstrate that the dermatoglyphic traits analyzed, with the exception of palmar pattern frequencies in the Hy area and in the Th/I interdigital area for plams separated when these areas are used singly, can be considered as a good set of variables to use in finding biological relationships between Sardinian linguistic groups of males examined on the basis of their linguistic backgrounds.     

台湾太鲁阁(Truku)族群肤纹学研究

本文报道台湾太鲁阁(Truku)的肤纹参数, 样本包括100名男性和100名女性。研究方法以《ADA标准-CDA版本》为依据、项目以《CDA标准》的Ⅱ级模式样本为依据。还有atd、tPD、猿线、指三角、同名指指纹对应的情况等, 见到非随机组合的现象。这是首次对太鲁阁人肤纹作Ⅱ级模式样本的调查, 为医学、遗传学和人类学等提供Ⅱ级模式样本。肤纹是人类的生物学性状, 由遗传和环境所致。指纹花样有每人每指各不相同和终身稳定两大特点, 成为个人身份鉴定的证明。肤纹在群体间有特异性, 在民族间有明显的差异。研究群体或民族的肤纹, 可以发现人类肤纹的遗传标记。     

Genetic structure of the Ards Peninsula,Northern Ireland: evidence from civil registers of marriage 1840-1911

This paper uses marital migration data transcribed from the Civil Registers of Marriage 1840-1911 to estimate kinship from migration matrices and isonymy in the Ards Peninsula, Northern Ireland. The distribution of religious denominations (Presbyterian, Episcopalian, and Roman Catholic) varies systematically throughout the region, with up to 77% Roman Catholic in the south and 81% Presbyterian in the north. Portavogie, a fishing village on the east coast, is exclusively Protestant, with a population 93% Presbyterian. Comparison of migration and isonymy with geographical distance by multidimensional scaling and the MATFIT procedure show Portavogie to be an outlier, more distantly related to other areas than its geographical position would predict. We suggest that this discrepancy is due to settlement history and occupational and religious isolation. Mantel tests show that marital migration is significantly related to geographical distance (rMG = 0.4257), as is the distribution of religious denominations (rRG = 0.5548) through settlement history. Migration is dependent on religion (rMR = 0.3674), and isonymy is dependent on migration (rIM= 0.2531) but not on geography or religion. With Portavogie omitted from the analysis, the dependence of migration on geography and on religion increases (rMG = 0.5583, rMR = 0.5646), as does the correlation between religion and geography (rRG = 0.7213). The dependence of isonymy on migration increases (rIM = 0.5103), and significant correlations between isonymy and religion (rIR = 0.4135) and isonymy and geography (rIG = 0.4660) appear. We argue that a full explanation of population structure requires geographical distance, settlement history, and the influence of religion and occupation to be taken into account.     

The settlement of Patagonia: a matrix correlation study.

Matrix correlation represents an innovative methodology to evaluate the explanatory power of several hypotheses by measuring their correspondence with observed morphological variation. In this paper, we view the origins of Patagonians from a matrix correlation approach. Personal and published data on nonmetric cranial traits were used to estimate a biological distance matrix involving five major groups from Patagonia and two from the northwest and northeast regions of Argentina. To evaluate correspondence with other important factors, we used a geographic distance matrix and four design matrices, representing several patterns of settlement and differentiation. Biological distance was found to be strongly associated with spatial separation; the correlation between geography and nonmetric cranial distances was highly significant. When geographic distance is held constant, correlation between a model representing high levels of heterogeneity between the samples and morphological (nonmetric) variation becomes highly significant.     

Constraints on patterns of covariation: a case study in strigid owls

In a system of intercorrelated variables, the sign and strength of pairwise relationships must conform to a mathematical constraint affecting the entire system. The constraint exists as a property of all correlation matrices, the positive semi-definite (PSD) criterion. We illustrate its implications with a case study of covariation among clutch size, body size, and latitude in the Strigidae. Our analyses indicate that clutch size and body size among strigid owls increase with latitude, while clutch size decreases with body size. The PSD provides a framework to explain the existence of this apparent macroevolutionary paradox. It also shows why the three relationships are never detected concurrently when using simple regressions or independent contrasts. In a system with three intercorrelated variables, the PSD criterion may allow one pairwise relationship to be negative even if the other two relationships are positive. However, the correlation coefficients cannot all be strong. Whenever the PSD criterion may constrain covariation, care should be exercised in inferring evolutionary or ecological processes from patterns of correlation.     

Contrasting patterns and mechanisms of spatial turnover for native and exotic freshwater fish in Europe

Aim We compare the distribution patterns of native and exotic freshwater fish in Europe, and test whether the same mechanisms (environmental filtering and/or dispersal limitation) govern patterns of decrease in similarity of native and exotic species composition over geographical distance (spatial species turnover). Locations Major river basins of Europe. Methods Data related to geography, habitat diversity, regional climate and species composition of native and exotic freshwater fish were collated for 26 major European river basins. We explored the degree of nestedness in native and exotic species composition, and quantified compositional similarity between river basins according to the beta‐sim (independent of richness gradient) and Jaccard (dependent of richness gradient) indices of similarity. Multiple regression on distance matrices and variation‐partitioning approaches were used to quantify the relative roles of environmental filtering and dispersal limitation in shaping patterns of decreasing compositional similarity over geographical distance. Results Native and exotic species exhibited significant nested patterns of species composition, indicating that differences in fish species composition between river basins are primarily the result of species loss, rather than species replacement. Both native and exotic compositional similarity decreased significantly with increasing geographical distance between river basins. However, gradual changes in species composition with geographical distance were found only for exotic species. In addition, exotic species displayed a higher rate of similarity decay (higher species turnover rate) with geographical distance, compared with native species. Lastly, the majority of explained variation in exotic compositional similarity was uniquely related to geography, whereas native compositional similarity was either uniquely explained by geography or jointly explained by environment and geography. Main conclusions Our study suggests that large‐scale patterns of spatial turnover for exotic freshwater fish in Europe are generated by human‐mediated dispersal limitation, whereas patterns of spatial turnover for native fish result from both dispersal limitation relative to historical events (isolation by mountain ranges, glacial history) and environmental filtering.     

Patterns of phenotypic covariation and correlation in modern humans as viewed from morphological integration

Proportionality of phenotypic and genetic distance is of crucial importance to adequately focus on population history and structure, and it depends on the proportionality of genetic and phenotypic covariance. Constancy of phenotypic covariances is unlikely without constancy of genetic covariation if the latter is a substantial component of the former. If phenotypic patterns are found to be relatively stable, the most probable explanation is that genetic covariance matrices are also stable. Factors like morphological integration account for such stability. Morphological integration can be studied by analyzing the relationships among morphological traits. We present here a comparison of phenotypic correlation and covariance structure among worldwide human populations. Correlation and covariance matrices between 47 cranial traits were obtained for 28 populations, and compared with design matrices representing functional and developmental constraints. Among-population differences in patterns of correlation and covariation were tested for association with matrices of genetic distances (obtained after an examination of 10 Alu-insertions) and with Mahalanobis distances (computed after craniometrical traits). All matrix correlations were estimated by means of Mantel tests. Results indicate that correlation and covariance structure in our species is stable, and that among-group correlation/covariance similarity is not related to genetic or phenotypic distance. Conversely, genetic and morphological distance matrices were highly correlated. Correlation and covariation patterns were largely associated with functional and developmental factors, which probably account for the stability of covariance patterns.     

A classification of European skulls from three time periods

We analyze the taxonomic structure of European populations at three time periods, the Early Middle Ages, the Late Middle Ages and the Recent Period. The data consist of sample means for 10 cranial variables based on 137, 108, and 183 samples for the three periods. Clustering by standard numerical taxonomic procedures reveals that the data are represented only poorly as hierarchic classifications. The clusters form significant and moderately strong associations with an arrangement of the samples by regions (geography) and by language family. Whereas during the early period, language family showed a stronger association with clusters based on cranial morphology, in the recent populations these clusters correspond better with geography than with language. Ordinations of these populations by means of nonmetric multidimensional scaling shows the continuity of the taxonomic structure at all three periods. Only a few populations are outliers. The relations between phenetic distances (cranial morphology), geography, and language are examined by means of multiple Mantel tests. At all three periods geography is correlated somewhat more strongly with phenetics than is language affiliation, but the correlation with the latter increases with time. When the data are pooled over the three periods, the populations tend to group by language affiliation more than they do by period. Ordination of the pooled data reveals language patterns rather than patterns due to period, showing strong shifts in cranial measurements through time. These analyses show that while there is no clear-cut taxonomic structure in European populations that would justify the traditional classifications based on the crania, there are significant and important associations with both language affiliation, geography, and time period, in this order. These patterns are likely to have become established through the migration and subsequent expansion of populations into their areas of occupation during the time interval studied rather than by geographic differentiation in situ.     

A new analytical approach to landscape genetic modelling: least-cost transect analysis and linear mixed models

Landscape genetics aims to assess the effect of the landscape on intraspecific genetic structure. To quantify interdeme landscape structure, landscape genetics primarily uses landscape resistance surfaces (RSs) and least-cost paths or straight-line transects. However, both approaches have drawbacks. Parameterization of RSs is a subjective process, and least-cost paths represent a single migration route. A transect-based approach might oversimplify migration patterns by assuming rectilinear migration. To overcome these limitations, we combined these two methods in a new landscape genetic approach: least-cost transect analysis (LCTA). Habitat-matrix RSs were used to create least-cost paths, which were subsequently buffered to form transects in which the abundance of several landscape elements was quantified. To maintain objectivity, this analysis was repeated so that each landscape element was in turn regarded as migration habitat. The relationship between explanatory variables and genetic distances was then assessed following a mixed modelling approach to account for the nonindependence of values in distance matrices. Subsequently, the best fitting model was selected using the statistic. We applied LCTA and the mixed modelling approach to an empirical genetic dataset on the endangered damselfly, Coenagrion mercuriale. We compared the results to those obtained from traditional least-cost, effective and resistance distance analysis. We showed that LCTA is an objective approach that identifies both the most probable migration habitat and landscape elements that either inhibit or facilitate gene flow. Although we believe the statistical approach to be an improvement for the analysis of distance matrices in landscape genetics, more stringent testing is needed.     

Genetic structure of La Cabrera, Spain, from surnames and migration matrices

The genetic structure of La Cabrera (province of Léon, Spain), a highly isolated and inbred population (alpha3 = 0.00482), is analyzed by applying multivariate methods (nonmetric multidimensional scaling, Mantel test, Monmonier's algorithm) to different biodemographic data sets. Isonymy, parent-offspring migration (total, males, females), and marital migration matrices were obtained from 5,714 marriages recorded in 37 parishes (clustered in 4 municipalities) between 1880 and 1989. The aim of the study is to investigate the relationships between the genetic and geographic structures of the area. Endemicity values (diagonal of parent-offspring migration matrices), calculated for both sexes at two hierarchical levels (parishes and municipalities), show that female mobility follows the virilocal migration model at the higher (municipalities) level and the uxorilocal model at the parish level. Analysis of isonymy and parent-offspring migration matrices shows high correspondence between the genetic structure and geographic location of the parishes. In fact, the main reproductive barriers, constructed using Monmonier's algorithm, generally coincide with geographic barriers, highlighting increasing isolation patterns from northwest to southeast. Moreover, the analysis of isonymous relationships, which are influenced by earlier population movements, identifies three parishes whose outlier positions are explained by historical-cultural or geographic reasons. The positive and highly significant values (0.32 < or = r < or = 0.51;p < or = 0.001) given by the Mantel tests underline the dependence of the genetic structure on geographic distance. In confirmation of the endemicity results, the lowest correlation value (r = 0.32) is given by the female migration matrix. When the outlier parishes are omitted from the analysis, the correlation between isonymy and geographic distance increases from 0.35 to 0.46, and the values from the other migration matrices remain unchanged. In conclusion, the combination of different data sets and methods allows a wider and more coherent reconstruction of the historical changes in the genetic structure of the La Cabrera population.     

Genetic and socio-cultural differentiation in the aborigines of Arnhem Land, Australia

Four tribes of Arnhem Land were surveyed for dermatoglyphics; based on pattern intensity indices, total ridge-counts, and a distance statistic combining the two, it was shown that the tribes can be arranged into western (Tiwi, Gunwinggu) and eastern (“Murngin” and Andilyaugwa) groups. This substantiates observations made on Arnhem Land by linguists and social anthropologists. From a survey of allele frequency traits of blood factors and P.T.C. tasting, distance statistics were computed between the four tribes. These confirmed the relative isolation of the extreme Arnhem Land tribes. Distance statistics were also computed between the four tribes and two Central Australian tribes, the Aranda and Wailbri. The Aranda and “Murngin” were relatively close together agreeing with theories that the Aranda are derived from a not too remote southwards migration from north Arnhem Land, as supported by linguistic data. Correlations between the biological, geographical and linguistic distances were positive, and generally agreed with the expectation that socio-cultural and linguistic barriers are important in regulating gene flow between populations. This study emphasizes the need to consider biological distances in association with ecological and socio-cultural factors.     

Genetic structure of the indigenous populations of Siberia

This study explores the genetic structure of Siberian indigenous populations on the basis of standard blood group and protein markers and DNA variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) variation. Four analytical methods were utilized in this study: Harpending and Jenkin's R-matrix; Harpending and Ward's method of correlating genetic heterozygosity (H) to the distance from the centroid of the gene frequency array (r_ii); spatial autocorrelation, and Mantel tests. Because of the underlying assumptions of the various methods, the numbers of populations used in the analyses varied from 15 to 62. Since spatial autocorrelation is based upon separate correlations between alleles, a larger number of standard blood markers and populations were used. Fewest Siberian populations have been sampled for VNTRs, thus, only a limited comparison was possible. The four analytical procedures employed in this study yielded complementary results suggestive of the effects of unique historical events, evolutionary forces, and geography on the distribution of alleles in Siberian indigenous populations. The principal components analysis of the R-matrix demonstrated the presence of populational clusters that reflect their phylogenetic relationship. Mantel comparisons of matrices indicate that an intimate relationship exists between geography, languages, and genetics of Siberian populations. Spatial autocorrelation patterns reflect the isolation-by-distance model of Malecot and the possible effects of long-distance migration. Am J Phys Anthropol 104:177–192, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Integrating Linguistics,Social Structure,and Geography to Model Genetic Diversity within India

India represents an intricate tapestry of population substructure shaped by geography, language, culture, and social stratification. Although geography closely correlates with genetic structure in other parts of the world, the strict endogamy imposed by the Indian caste system and the large number of spoken languages add further levels of complexity to understand Indian population structure. To date, no study has attempted to model and evaluate how these factors have interacted to shape the patterns of genetic diversity within India. We merged all publicly available data from the Indian subcontinent into a data set of 891 individuals from 90 well-defined groups. Bringing together geography, genetics, and demographic factors, we developed Correlation Optimization of Genetics and Geodemographics to build a model that explains the observed population genetic substructure. We show that shared language along with social structure have been the most powerful forces in creating paths of gene flow in the subcontinent. Furthermore, we discover the ethnic groups that best capture the diverse genetic substructure using a ridge leverage score statistic. Integrating data from India with a data set of additional 1,323 individuals from 50 Eurasian populations, we find that Indo-European and Dravidian speakers of India show shared genetic drift with Europeans, whereas the Tibeto-Burman speaking tribal groups have maximum shared genetic drift with East Asians.     

Diversity of some gene frequencies in European and Asian populations. V. Steep multilocus clines.

Regions of abrupt genetic change, which result from either rapid spatial change of selective pressures or limited admixture, were investigated in Europe and Asia on the basis of eight red cell markers typed in 960 samples. Two methods were employed, one based on genetic distances and one on evaluation of the first derivative of the surfaces representing allele-frequency variation. Genetic divergence tends to be maximal between populations that are separated by physical factors (mountain ranges and seas) but also separated by cultural barriers (different language affiliation). This suggests that mating isolation, rather than adaptive response to environmental change, accounts for spatially abrupt genetic change at the loci studied and that cultural differences associated with language contribute to isolating populations. Although selection may have determined two wide allele-frequency gradients, the genetic structure of European and Asian populations seems primarily to reflect isolation by distance when investigated on a small scale and migration patterns (or absence of migration) when investigated on a larger scale.     

Isolation-by-distance in landscapes: considerations for landscape genetics

In landscape genetics, isolation-by-distance (IBD) is regarded as a baseline pattern that is obtained without additional effects of landscape elements on gene flow. However, the configuration of suitable habitat patches determines deme topology, which in turn should affect rates of gene flow. IBD patterns can be characterized either by monotonically increasing pairwise genetic differentiation (for example, F_ST) with increasing interdeme geographic distance (case-I pattern) or by monotonically increasing pairwise genetic differentiation up to a certain geographical distance beyond which no correlation is detectable anymore (case-IV pattern). We investigated if landscape configuration influenced the rate at which a case-IV pattern changed to a case-I pattern. We also determined at what interdeme distance the highest correlation was measured between genetic differentiation and geographic distance and whether this distance corresponded to the maximum migration distance. We set up a population genetic simulation study and assessed the development of IBD patterns for several habitat configurations and maximum migration distances. We show that the rate and likelihood of the transition of case-IV to case-I F_ST–distance relationships was strongly influenced by habitat configuration and maximum migration distance. We also found that the maximum correlation between genetic differentiation and geographic distance was not related to the maximum migration distance and was measured across all deme pairs in a case-I pattern and, for a case-IV pattern, at the distance where the F_ST–distance curve flattens out. We argue that in landscape genetics, separate analyses should be performed to either assess IBD or the landscape effects on gene flow.