Multi-Year Impacts of Ecotourism on Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus) Visitation at Ningaloo Reef,Western Australia

In-water viewing of sharks by tourists has become a popular and lucrative industry. There is some concern that interactions with tourists with ecotourism operations might harm sharks through disruption of behaviours. Here, we analysed five years of whale shark (Rhincodon typus) encounter data by an ecotourism industry at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia, to assess the impact of ecotourism interactions on shark visitation, within the context of the biological and physical oceanography of the region. Our data base consisted of 2823 encounter records for 951 individual whale sharks collected by ecotourism operators between 2007 and 2011. We found that total encounters per whale shark and encounters per boat trip increased through time. On average, whale sharks re-encountered in subsequent years were encountered earlier, stayed longer and tended to be encountered more often within a season than sharks that were only encountered in a single year. Sequential comparisons between years did not show any patterns consistent with disturbance and the rate of departure of whale sharks from the aggregation was negatively correlated to the number of operator trips. Overall, our analysis of this multi-year data base found no evidence that interactions with tourists affected the likelihood of whale shark re-encounters and that instead, physical and biological environmental factors had a far greater influence on whale shark visitation rates. Our approach provides a template for assessing the effects of ecotourism interactions and environmental factors on the visitation patterns of marine megafauna over multiple years.     

海南南湾猴岛景区内猕猴与游客接触行为的研究

在世界范围内,观赏和投喂野生猿猴是最常见的野生动物旅游形式之一。其中游客与动物的关系越来越成为动物学、人类学和社会学学者研究关注的热点。游客在娱乐的过程中,存在被猿猴威胁甚至咬伤等问题。对人猴接触行为的客观分析,是提高旅游服务管理和保障游客安全的必要措施。本研究记录了2012-2014年海南南湾猴岛景区内游客与猕猴的接触行为,并分析了景区医务室近两年的游客就诊记录,主要探讨：（1）哪些游客会参与人猴接触,及其游客的认识误区;（2）哪些猕猴会频繁参与人猴接触;（3）哪些原因会引发人猴接触行为。本文旨在了解景区内游客与猿猴的互动关系,探讨游客受伤原因及其解决办法,为完善野生动物旅游的健康发展提供基础资料。     

Caribbean Island Asteraceae: Systematics, Molecules, and Conservation on a Biodiversity Hotspot

The Caribbean Islands are one of the ten insular biodiversity hotspots that are defined based on endemicity, massive habitat loss and vulnerability to extinction. Asteraceae genera endemic to islands have provided well known examples of plant radiation worldwide and illustrate the importance of these insular systems for evolutionary and conservation studies. A review of known patterns of taxonomic diversity and molecular cladistics is provided for Asteraceae genera and species endemic in the Caribbean Island biodiversity hotspot. We found that when compared with other island systems worldwide the Caribbean Islands have the highest number of endemic genera (41), have endemic genera in the highest number of tribes, and harbor the only Asteraceae tribe endemic to an island system, the Feddeeae which is restricted to Cuba. These unique patterns identify the Caribbean Islands as the most important insular area of endemism for this major plant family. Molecular cladistic studies are limited to only seven species in seven endemic genera and six endemic species in five non-endemic genera. These few studies are however relevant as: (1) they confirm the tribal status of the Feddeeae, (2) suggest colonization events from the highlands of Cuba toward low elevation and geologically recent areas of the Bahamas and South Florida, (3) provide evidence for biogeographical links to remote regions of the Pacific Basin, and (4) identify sister relationships with continental taxa, mostly from North America.

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Resumen  Las Islas del Caribe son uno de los diez “punto calientes” insulares de biodiversidad, los cuales vienen definidos por sus niveles de endemicidad, masiva pérdida de habitat y vulnerabilidad y extinción. Asteráceas endémicas de islas han proporcionado ejemplos muy bien conocidos de radiación vegetal a nivel mundial, éstos ilustran la importancia de los sistemas insulares en estudios evolutivos y de conservación. Se presenta una revisión de las pautas de diversidad taxonómica y de cladismo molecular en Asteráceas de las Islas del Caribe. Hemos encontrado que comparadas con otros sistemas insulares, las Islas del Caribe tienen el mayor número de géneros endémicos (41), tienen géneros endémicos en el mayor número de tribus y poseen la única tribu de la familia endémica en islas, Feddeeae es endémica de Cuba. Estas pautas de diversidad exclusivas de las Islas del Caribe hacen que éstas sean el área de endemismos insulares más importante para las Asteráceas. Estudios de cladismo molecular se limitan solamente a siete especies en siete géneros endémicos y a seis especies en cinco géneros no endémicos. Este reducido número de estudios son de todas formas relevantes debido a que: (1) confirman el estatus a nivel de tribu de Feddeeae, (2) sugieren una ruta de colonización desde zonas altas de Cuba hacia áreas de baja elevación de las Bahamas y el sur de la Florida, (3) proporcionan evidencia de conexiones biogeográficas con regions remotas del Océano Pacífico, y (4) identifican relaciones de hermandad con táxones continentales, principalmente de América del Norte.

     

A New Species ofSalvia (Lamiaceae) from the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas,Mexico

Salvia tuxtlensis, sp. n., is immediately recognized by its semipersistent bracts and yellow flowers. Its affinities are not clear. It is endemic to the Soteapan area in the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, in Veracruz, Mexico.     

Parrot conservation and ecotourism in the Windward Islands

The genus Amazona is represented on three islands in the Windward Islands. Since Europeans first visited the region in the fifteenth century, at least three parrot species have become extinct in the Windward Islands, and today all the extant parrots of the region are endangered. Several factors have contributed to the current plight of the parrots. The authorities in each of the islands of the Windward Islands that have endemic parrots have come to the realization that sound environmental management measures can complement rather than hinder national socioeconomic goals and objectives. Consequently, regional governments have begun to explore and foster linkages between conservation and other sectors of the economy. This article examines current parrot conservation efforts in the Windward Islands and the linkages which are being fostered between tourism and other sectors of the economy. Policy and research implications of the region's current parrot conservation efforts and ecotourism programme are also considered.     

First record of Crustacea Malacostraca from fresh waters in the Canary Islands

Crustacea Malacostraca were hitherto unknown from fresh waters of the Canary Islands. A new species of Amphipoda, Rhipidogammarus rheophilus, has recently been discovered in springs and spring brooks in Tenerife.

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Resumen Crustacea Malacostraca era hasta ahora desconocida de las aguas dulces de las Islas Canarias. Una nueva especie de anfípodo, Rhipidogammarus rheophilus, ha sido recientemente descubierto de fuentes y manantiales de Tenerife.

     

生态旅游观的发展及其应用

综述了生态旅游观的发展及其应用。分析不同的生态旅游观及其对社会环境的正面和负面效应。探讨生态旅游的深刻内涵,强调生态旅游应从概念化向观念化转变,说明正确的生态旅游观对生态旅游开发者和管理者的意义。     

云南碧塔海自然保护区生态旅游开发模式研究

1　引　　言自然保护区作为生态旅游开发的主要对象 ,在发挥其旅游功能为自己的保护寻到经济支撑[1,2 ,17] ,为当地经济发展和社区人民脱贫提供资源[5,19] 的同时 ,面临一大问题 ,即如何有效地保护其自然生态环境[6] .把旅游业作为支柱产业来培植的云南省拥有各级自然保护区 10 7个 ,是中国自然保护区数量最多的省份[13] .该省把生态旅游产品作为旅游业可持续发展的主打产品 ,并十分重视旅游资源及环境的保护[19] ,采取审慎开发的态度 ,选试点进行示范区开发 ,取得经验后再逐步推广 .位于滇西北香格里拉腹地的迪庆藏族自治州州府的中甸县 ,…     

Ecotourism Along the Meso-American Caribbean Reef: The Impacts of Foreign Investment

Ecotourism has been heralded as a potential economic and environmental savior in much of Latin America, though explosive foreign investment in ecotourism ventures raises questions about the validity of ecotourism as a tool of sustainable local development. This paper uses three case studies from coastal Belize and the Bay Islands of Honduras to illustrate the challenges that local communities face when attempting to derive ecotourism benefits. Whether these communities are poised to take advantage of foreign capital is largely dependent on their ability to direct the investment and establish control over their common property resources. This appears to require a marked cultural shift toward planning and politicization.     

Shamanism,Tourism, and Secrecy: Revelation and Concealment in Siberut,Western Indonesia

ABSTRACT

This essay attempts to explain why international backpacker tourists in Indonesia are so interested in indigenous religion and especially in shamanism. It articulates the indigenous mode of analysis or reverse anthropology of the people whom the tourists visit: in this case, the Sakaliou clan on the island of Siberut, the largest of the Mentawai Islands off the west coast of Sumatra. According to Sakaliou, tourists seem to be looking for something they have lost, a kind of secret knowledge that is possessed by the shaman. Unlike other people, who keep their secrets in isolation, the shaman must skilfully reveal some of his secret knowledge as part of a public performance. It is this secret knowledge, indicated by the skilled revelation of skilled concealment, for which tourists seem to be searching among the members of the Sakaliou clan and their shamans.     

Genetic evidence for dispersal by both sexes in the Central American Squirrel Monkey, Saimiri oerstedii citrinellus

Sex-biased dispersal (SBD) is common in many vertebrates, including primates. However, dispersal patterns in New World primates may vary among closely related taxa or populations in different local environments. Here, we test for SBD in an endangered New World primate, the Central American Squirrel Monkey (Saimiri oerstedii citrinellus). Previous studies of behavioral ecology suggest predominantly female dispersal in S.o. oerstedii in the Southern Pacific region of Costa Rica. However, our genetic data do not support strongly female-biased dispersal in S.o. citrinellus in the Central Pacific region. Our tests for SBD using microsatellite data including comparisons of isolation-by-distance, AI(c) , and F(ST) values between males and females were not significant. Also, we found greater population genetic structure in mitochondrial markers than in microsatellite markers, indicative of predominantly male dispersal. We conclude that both sexes disperse in S.o. citrinellus, and that males probably disperse over longer distances. We discuss how spatial and temporal variation among local populations should be taken into account when studying dispersal patterns and especially sex bias.     

Taxonomy and conservation: A case study from Chamaedorea alternans

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The establishment of justified recommendations in conservation biology requires robust taxonomic treatments for the group(s) being considered. Controversial or poorly developed taxonomies can have a negative impact on conservation assessments. One example of a taxonomically difficult and controversial species complex that is important in conservation involves two species of Mexican palms, Chamaedorea tepejilote and C. alternans. The goal of this study was to investigate whether C. alternans and C. tepejilote are genetically distinct within the Los Tuxtlas region of Veracruz. METHODS: Individuals corresponding to the morphology of C. alternans and C. tepejilote were collected from sympatric and allopatric regions within the Los Tuxtlas Biological Station. Eighty-eight samples were genotyped using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. Cluster and ordination analyses were used to investigate patterns of differentiation. KEY RESULTS: UPGMA and PCO analyses of AFLP profiles recovered two divergent clusters corresponding to morphologically defined C. tepejilote and C. alternans. No intermediate genotypes were observed and five of the 45 loci were fixed for either the presence or absence between the species. The patterns of divergence observed do not identify a role for sympatric speciation. CONCLUSIONS: The observed patterns of differentiation support the recognition of C. alternans as distinct from C. tepejilote. A suite of vegetative and reproductive morphological features can be used to help distinguish these taxa in the field, but they can be difficult to differentiate from preserved material. Previous treatments of the variation found within the complex (C. alternans and C. tepejilote) as intraspecific variance is unjustified. Given that the Los Tuxtlas region has suffered from historical and ongoing deforestation and that Chamaedorea includes numerous endangered taxa, retaining conservation status for C. alternans serves to help safeguard individuals of the species as well as a region and larger taxonomic group all under considerable threat from human activities.     

Diversity of Neotropical migratory landbird species assemblages in forest fragments and man-made vegetation in Los Tuxtlas,Mexico

We investigated the presence of Neotropical migratory landbirds in a 90-km² landscape in the region of Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Mexico. Using the fixed-radius count point procedure, migratory landbirds were surveyed in 21 forest fragments and in four replicates of shaded (coffee, cacao and mixed) and unshaded (citrus and allspice) plantations, live fences, non-arboreal crops (corn and jalapeño chili pepper) and pastures. The surveys resulted in the count of 4732 birds representing 72 species. While forest fragments accounted for 65% of the total species count, 73% of the birds were counted in the arboreal man-made habitats. Pastures contributed to 10% of the species and to 1% of the individuals counted. Live fences were particularly rich in individuals, accounting for 28% of the birds counted. Rarefaction analysis showed that forest fragments were the sites richest in species, followed by shaded and unshaded plantations and by live fences. Pastures were the habitats poorest in species, followed by non-arboreal crops. Species richness of Neotropical migratory landbirds was associated to vertical and horizontal diversity of vegetation in the habitats investigated. Shaded and unshaded plantations as well as live fences were more similar to forest fragments in species assemblages than non-arboreal crops and pastures. We discuss the conservation value of arboreal agricultural habitat and of live fences in conjunction with forest fragments as temporary habitats for Neotropical migratory landbirds that stop over or winter in Los Tuxtlas.     

Latitudinal variations of the yield and quality of agar from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gelidium robustum</Emphasis> (Gelidiales,Rhodophyta) from the main commercial harvest beds along the western coast of the Baja California Peninsula,Mexico

The yield and quality of agar from Gelidium robustum from the main commercial harvest beds along the western coast of the Baja California Peninsula (Mexico) were evaluated within a latitudinal range of about 800 km (31°47′N to 27°05′N). Samples from six locations, Bahía Todos Santos, El Rosario, Isla de Cedros, Islas San Benito, Punta Eugenia, and Bahía Asunción, were analyzed. Bryozoan, protein, and agar content in the seaweed were estimated. The agar quality was determined by the content of 3,6-anhydrogalactose, sulfate, gel strength, and gelling and melting temperature. All the values of these variables were correlated and then with the satellite-derived data of the sea surface temperature (SST), net primary production (NPP), and photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) measured at each harvest bed during the summer months (June, July, and August) of 2000. In the northern and central region, the agar yield was 35% to 37% (Bahía Todos Santos, El Rosario, Isla de Cedros, and Islas San Benito), whereas lower yields were obtained from the southern beds (Punta Eugenia and Bahía Asunción). In contrast, the agar quality increased from the northern to the southern beds. A lower gel strength was obtained from Bahía Todos Santos and El Rosario (268 ± 16 and 205 ± 5 gcm⁻²) with a higher gel strength obtained from Isla de Cedros, Islas San Benito, and Bahía Asunción (384 to 444 ± 25 gcm⁻²). Yield was not correlated with the bryozoan content but was inversely correlated with the protein content in the seaweed. The sulfate content in the agar was inversely correlated with the gel strength and with the melting temperature. The 3,6-anhydrogalactose content showed slight variations among harvested beds. Analysis of satellite-derived data showed an equatorward increase of the SST, NPP, and PAR. The agar content correlated inversely with the equatorward increase of the NPP, whereas agar quality, i.e., gel strength, correlated positively with the NPP and PAR. No significant effects were observed on the yield and quality of agar with the latitudinal change of the SST.     

Diet of the Critically Endangered Brown Spider Monkey (Ateles hybridus) in an Inter‐Andean Lowland Rainforest in Colombia

Brown spider monkeys (Ateles hybridus) are one of the least known and more threatened primates in the Neotropics. Recognized as a species about a decade ago, field studies on these endangered primates have mainly focused on estimating local population densities. Since 2006, we habituated a group of wild brown spider monkeys at Serranía de Las Quinchas, Colombia, and studied their feeding ecology during 2.5 years using focal “subgroup” sampling, and conducted phenological surveys in order to estimate habitat‐wide fruit availability. Based on 847 hr of behavioral follows, brown spider monkeys spent approximately 25% of their time in feeding activities, and fed from fruits and leaves on at least 123 plant species. Ripe fruits were the most important item in the diet of A. hybridus at Las Quinchas comprising 92% of their feeding time. Probably due to the minor variation in the monthly proportion of fruits in brown spider monkey's diet throughout this study, there was no relation between habitat‐wide fruit availability and the proportion of fruit included in their monthly diet. The diet of brown spider monkeys at Las Quinchas is toward the high end of fruit intake, even within other wild spider monkeys’ populations, suggesting that these endangered primates might also be facing the challenges of being a large bodied fruit specialist under a regional scenario of habitat loss and fragmentation. Am. J. Primatol. 74:1097‐1105, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

A preliminary study of resource overlap between howling monkeys (Alouatta palliata) and other arboreal mammals in the tropical rain forest of Los Tuxtlas,Mexico

Potential resource overlap between howling monkeys and other arboreal mammals was studied in the rain forest of Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Mexico. Eight species of mammals belonging to the orders Primates, Carnivora, Rodentia, and Marsupialia were found to share the canopy and to overlap trophically with howling monkeys. These mammals made up 77% and Alouatta 23% of the arboreal mammalian biomass under consideration. The arboreal porcupine and spider monkey were the only mammals that also fed on leaves. However, in this feeding niche, Alouatta is the only important mammalian folivore in Los Tuxtlas, and resource depression derived from leaf-eating insects is more important. The eight arboreal mammals may exert more pressure upon fruit resources, for they consumed 75% of the estimated total dry weight of fruit/ha/yr consumed by arboreal mammals.     

Variation in behavioral responses of the South American sea lion to tourism disturbance: Implications for tourism management

Due to the highly predictable patterns of occupancy on land, pinnipeds are one of the main marine resources observed by tourists, which, in turn, could strongly perturb their behavior. We analyzed the behavioral responses of the South American sea lion (Otaria byronia) to the presence of tourists and its variation according to temporal (2012 vs. 2013 austral summer months), spatial (breeding vs. nonbreeding sites of the colony), and age/sex class (adult males vs. subadult males vs. females) factors, and determined the relationship between the degree of responses by sea lions and the distance of the vessel to the colony, visitation time, and tourist behavior. We recorded 1,232 boat visits during 2012 and 2013. Subadult males were the age/sex class most affected in the breeding site, followed by adult females at the nonbreeding site. More disturbing conduct by tourists, longer visitation time, and vessels closer to the colony caused greater responses by sea lions. The established minimum distance from the colony is not enforced, generating an adverse response by sea lions. We recommend the development of management plans with the local coastal communities to decrease the impact of ecotourism on the species and enhance the sustainability of this industry.     

Tropical rain forest conversion and perspectives in the conservation of wild primates (Alouatta and Ateles) in Mexico

The original distribution of the tropical rain forest and of the populations of Alouatta palliata, Al. pigra, and the two subspecies of Ateles geoffroyi in southern Mexico have been reduced by at least 90% in the last 40 years as a result of conversion of natural habitat to pasture and agricultural fields. This dramatic conversion has been caused mainly by the rapid growth of the human population in the southern states of the country. In the region of Los Tuxtlas in southern Veracruz, where the only longitudinal popululational and ecological studies of A. palliata and At. g. vellerosus have taken place, only 15% of the original extension of the tropical rain forest remains today. The intensive destruction of suitable primate habitat in this region has resulted in an accelerated process of extinction of the primate species. It is estimated that only about 200 At. g. vellerosus and about 1200 Al. palliata exist in the remaining small portion of their original habitat. Today, the distribution of the three primate species in Mexico is intensively and extensively fragmented, and only five potential foci for conservation exist in the country. Urgent action is required to protect the primate populations in the region of Los Tuxtlas and at the other four foci, as some of these populations may disappear by 1995.     

Human speech reduces pygmy marmoset (Cebuella pygmaea) feeding and resting at a Peruvian tourist site,with louder volumes decreasing visibility

Although potentially beneficial in terms of raising awareness and conservation funding, tourist visitation of wild primates can have negative impacts on visited groups. Tourism‐generated noise is a relatively understudied facet of ecotourism research, and the effects of tourist‐generated speech on free‐ranging, wild primates has never been explored previously. This study investigates the behavioral responses of 10 groups of pygmy marmosets (Cebuella pygmaea) to human speech. Through the use of an experimental playback study using recorded human speech, we show that pygmy marmosets within the Tamshiyacu‐Tahuayo Reserve, Peru, are significantly less visible, and often move completely out of sight after louder playbacks. Although no consistent differences were found in other behaviors with playback duration and volume, playbacks of human speech tended to increase the amount of time individuals were alert and decrease feeding and resting behaviors. Our results demonstrate that human speech can alter the behavior of visited primates, and identifies a decrease in primate visibility within the increasing volume. As all trials in this study took place near a marmoset group's feeding tree, moving out of sight from the visible study area is a particularly energetically costly behavior, and also has a negative effect on visitor enjoyment as it limits the time that they are able to view the target species. This response was not observed (nor was any other consistent behavior change) in control trials where the marmosets were exposed to human presence but not to speech, suggesting that negative tourist impacts can be reduced by encouraging tourists to refrain from speaking in the presence of visited primate groups.     

Reconstruction of the biogeographical history of Malesherbiaceae

Malesherbiaceae are xerophytic plants of Chile, Peru, and Argentina. The 24 species of the only genus,Malesherbia, live in a variety of arid habitats in the Pacific coastal desert and adjacent Andes of Peru, Chile, and neighboring Argentina. Taxa with distributions in both Peru and Chile are rare; for this reason the family provides an excellent case study for the biogeography of this region of western South America. Phylogenetic analysis of ITS sequence data using Turneraceae as an outgroup shows a correlation between the phylogeny and the distribution of Malesherbiaceae. The origin of the family is placed in the late Miocene to early Pliocene, when the region became permanently arid. The five major clades of the family likely diverged during the Pliocene. A single clade consisting of species native to Peru and the Atacama Desert indicates that the family was introduced to Peru once. Most modern species appear to have evolved in response to Pleistocene climatic fluctuations.

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Resumen  Las Malesherbiaceae son plantas xerófitas de Chile, el Perú, y Argentina. Las 24 especies del genero único,Malesherbia, viven en una variedad de hábitats en el desierto costero del Pacífico y en la zona andina vecina en el Perú, Chile, y Argentina. Los taxones con distribuciones tanto en el Perú como en Chile son raros; por eso la familia es un buen ejemplo para el estudio de la biogeografía de esta región del oeste de América del Sur. El análisis filogenético de datos de secuencias de ITS usando Turneraceae como un grupo extemo muestra una correlación entre la filogenia y la distribución de Malesherbiaceae. La familia se originó en el Mioceno tardío o Plioceno temprano, cuando la región se volvió permanentemente árida. Los cinco clados mayores de la familia probablemente divergieron en el Plioceno. Un solo clado que tiene especies nativas a Perú y el Desierto de Atacama indica que la familia llegó al Perú una vez. La mayoría de las especies modernas probablemente evolucionaron en respuesta a las fluctuaciones climáticas en el Pleistoceno.