秦岭川金丝猴长时间携带死婴行为

本文首次报道了一例秦岭川金丝猴死婴被其母亲和近亲未成年雌猴长时间携带行为。携带者的行为除正常婴猴中常见的检视、嗅吻、理毛行为外,还有嘴叼和手抓携带行为,后者是正常婴猴携带行为中未曾见到过的。对于树栖生活为主的川金丝猴,与正常婴猴相比,死婴的携带更加困难,母亲对死婴的行为方式在一定程度上体现了对婴猴的母爱和照料能力。本文对死婴携带行为发生的原因及其意义进行了初步探讨。     

秦岭玉皇庙川金丝猴2-3岁内个体社会行为的性别差异

2005年3月至2006年5月在秦岭北坡的陕西周至国家级自然保护区玉皇庙地区,采用焦点动物取样法(Focal animal sampling)观察动物,利用瞬时记录法(Instantaneous recording)等记录数据,对2003年出生的7只秦岭川金丝猴(Rhinopithecus roxellana)个体(3♀、4♂)的社会理毛、社会玩耍、被驱赶、攻击、爬跨等行为进行了研究,以了解该物种社会行为的发育在2-3岁阶段是否存在性别间的差异。结果表明:雌、雄二性社会理毛行为的平均频次存在显著性差异(♀11.86%、♂6.55%),并且这种显著性差异也体现在理毛婴猴行为(♀3.64%、♂1.26%)和理毛母亲行为(♀4.61%、♂2.70%)方面;雄性社会玩耍行为的平均频次与雌性相比也有显著性差异(♀4.44%、♂7.39%),这与被驱赶行为性别差异的研究结果相同(♀0.42、♂1.98);爬跨行为的平均频次也表现出显著性的性别差异(♀0.034、♂1.83),如同攻击行为(♀0.043、♂0.088)。另外,我们在将2-3岁阶段分为4个小发育阶段的基础上,还发现除雌性理毛婴猴行为的发生频次和雄性被驱赶行为的发生频次与年龄(阶段)呈极显著正相关外,雌性和雄性其它行为的发生频次与年龄均不相关。因此,川金丝猴2-3岁内个体社会行为的发育具有显著性的性别差异,且在一定程度上反映了雌雄二性不同的生活史,而这种行为上的策略正是该物种在长期进化中在群体水平上对自然选择压力的回应,以增加个体的适合度,使种群得以繁衍.     

神农架川金丝猴投食群的母婴关系

灵长类动物母亲的育婴行为不仅对后代的存活起着关键作用,而且对婴猴的发育和成年后的社会交往有着重大影响,因此母-婴关系一直是灵长类学研究的热点之一。为了解川金丝猴的母-婴关系,探讨川金丝猴母-婴关系个体差异的影响因素,我们于2013年3月至2014年10月,以母-婴间相对距离表示照料强度,对神农架川金丝猴的母-婴照料关系以及母亲照料强度个体差异的影响因素进行了定量研究。结果表明：母亲照料行为强度、母亲对阿姨行为的容忍与婴猴年龄相关,限制行为与婴猴年龄不相关。身体接触与婴猴年龄不相关;腹部接触以及母-婴相对距离小于1 m与婴猴年龄呈负相关;相对距离1 m至5 m、相对距离5 m至10 m和相对距离大于10 m与婴猴年龄呈正相关;母亲对阿姨行为的拒绝与婴猴年龄呈负相关;母亲对婴猴的限制行为与年龄不相关。总的来说,即随着婴猴成长,母婴间距离越来越远,母亲也逐渐减少对婴猴的保护。母亲的生育经验、婴猴性别、婴猴出生先后和社会单元大小对神农架川金丝猴母婴关系没有显著影响,补食群丰富的食物资源和群内雌性友好的关系可能是导致本结果的原因。     

首例太行山猕猴双胞胎初报

2014年4月21日17∶30,在河南省济源市五龙口风景区的一个太行山猕猴Macaca mulatta tcheliensis群(WLK-1)内首次发现了太行山猕猴一胎双生的现象。采用焦点动物取样法对双胞胎母亲和婴猴进行了观察和记录,旨在对母猴早期育婴行为特征和婴猴个体发育进行初步研究。这是国内首次报道野外条件下猕猴的双胞胎现象。     

白头叶猴婴猴月龄和性别对母婴关系的影响

非人灵长类动物的母婴关系是婴猴第一次重要的社会体验,对婴猴的生长发育、正常社会行为以及心理健康都具有重要意义。因此,母婴关系研究一直是灵长类学研究的热点之一。为深入了解白头叶猴(Trachypithecus leucocephalus)母婴关系的发展和影响因素,2009年9月至2010年8月,我们以广西崇左白头叶猴国家级自然保护区岜盆片区的一群野生白头叶猴为研究对象,记录其母婴行为的发生持续时长和发生频次,结合婴猴月龄和性别,探究婴猴月龄和性别对白头叶猴母婴关系的影响。结果表明：婴猴月龄显著影响白头叶猴的母婴关系。随着婴猴月龄的不断增长,母猴对婴猴的保护也随之逐渐减少,表明婴猴的发育是从依赖母猴到逐步独立融入社群的过程。婴猴性别对母婴行为的持续时间无显著影响,但在发生频次上母猴对雌性婴猴的照顾明显多于雄性婴猴。婴猴性别对母婴间的理毛行为、含乳行为均无显著影响,但对怀抱行为具有显著影响。白头叶猴母猴对不同性别的婴猴采取不同的照顾方式,这可能与雄性婴猴和雌性婴猴未来所承担的社会角色不同有关。     

笼养黑叶猴的相互理毛行为

2001年7月1日至8月31日,应用焦点动物观察法和全事件行为记录法对广西南宁动物园灵长类繁殖中心的一群黑叶猴的相互理毛行为进行了分析,从中探讨其在黑叶猴社群中的功能。在27d的观察中(有效观察时间162h),共收集了663次相互理毛行为回合的数据。结果表明,相互理毛行为主要集中在无法进行自我理毛的部位,易于进行自我理毛的部位得到相对较少的相互理毛,这与卫生假说相一致。研究表明相互理毛行为主要由理毛者发起和结束。在不同的性别年龄组中,相互理毛行为主要发生在成年雌性个体之间。虽然相互理毛行为受到社会等级的影响,但等级序位最高的个体并非最具吸引力的理毛伙伴,发生在等级序位低的个体间的相互理毛行为明显多于发生在它们与序位高的个体间的理毛行为。     

滇金丝猴雌性个体间的理毛行为

相互理毛行为广泛存在于社会性群居灵长类动物中,通常具有清洁卫生和社会交往功能。2012 年10 月至2013 年6 月,我们在云南白马雪山国家级自然保护区对一人工辅助投食滇金丝猴群,采用全事件取样法和焦点动物取样法收集了雌性个体间相互理毛的行为数据,包括理毛的部位、理毛的姿势、理毛的时间和回合数。研究结果表明:滇金丝猴雌性个体之间每次相互理毛的平均时间为5. 7 min。相互理毛部位较多的发生在自我理毛不能进行(达到)的部位(61.1% );在不能自我理毛部位的相互理毛行为持续时间长,平均9.7 min;在个体能够进行自我理毛部位的相互理毛持续时间短,平均为3. 2 min。相互理毛的姿势以对坐为主(48. 4% ),不同理毛姿势的理毛时间差异显著。新迁入家庭单元的雌性个体为理毛的首先发起者,但其获得被理毛的时间却并不多。滇金丝猴雌性个体相互理毛部位、理毛姿势和理毛时间的差异表明,它们之间的相互理毛行为符合卫生功能假说和社会功能假说。     

白马雪山自然保护区响古箐滇金丝猴的交配行为

灵长类交配模式是灵长类社群结构和婚配制度的重要表征之一,其研究有助于了解灵长类社群结构和两性交配策略。2013年11月至2014年10月,我们对云南白马雪山国家级自然保护区一人工辅助投食滇金丝猴群进行了观察研究,采用焦点动物取样法和全事件记录法收集了雌雄个体交配相关的行为数据,主要包括邀配对象、交配过程、持续时间和回合数,以及参与交配的雌雄对在交配结束后的相互理毛的持续时间和回合数。研究结果表明:研究群滇金丝猴全年均有交配行为,交配高峰期在7-9月,两性参与交配的积极性和对季节变化的响应不同;交配主要由雌性通过邀配发动(76%),交配高峰期也是雌性邀配的高峰期;雄性爬跨频次(年均0.43次/月,n=5)和射精爬跨比(年均19%,n=5)在全年无显著变化。交配行为发生的典型表现为:雌性通过小跑或跳跃进入雄性视线范围内,爬伏呈臀向雄性邀配;雌猴爬伏时离雄猴的远近距离不同(1 m vs.2-5 m:69%vs.31%)会影响其邀配成功率(1 m vs.2-5 m:68%vs.40%);若一次邀配失败,雌猴可能会连续爬伏邀配(最多4次),连续多次邀配的成功率显著高于单次邀配(79%vs.52%)。交配结束后雌性会主动为雄性理毛,但雌性主动理毛与交配是否射精无关。     

笼养雌性黑叶猴尿中性腺激素水平变化与性行为、等级序位的关系

2003年10月30日至2004年11月21日,采集了3只笼养雌性黑叶猴妊娠期和1 只笼养雌性黑叶猴发情期的晨尿,并用放射免疫分析法检测尿液中孕酮和雌二醇浓度,同时用全事件观察法观察黑叶猴的行为,分析雌性黑叶猴的行为与其尿中的性腺激素的关系。研究结果发现:1)进入妊娠期,雌性黑叶猴尿中的雌二醇浓度逐渐上升,中后期达高峰;而尿中孕酮浓度在妊娠初期仍维持在放免法的灵敏度以下,妊娠约1 个月后才升高至灵敏度以上(13.39 ng/ mgCr);2)在妊娠中期,雌性黑叶猴仍维持着较高频率的邀配行为,但与雌激素的变化无明显的相关关;3)发情期,雌猴尿中的雌二醇浓度与其邀配行为呈正相关;4)雌性黑叶猴的性激素高低与其等级序位无关,但序位高的雌猴繁殖较早。     

藏猴替代父母行为

在温暧季节,峨眉山藏猴（Ｍａｃａｃａｔｈｉｂｅｔａｎａ）部分依赖游人食物,可以作近距离观察。用点取样和焦点动物取样法,其替代父母行为（ａｌｌｏｐａｒｅｎｔｉｎｇ）数据收集于１９８７年出生季节的后半期（３—６月）。在２３周龄内,婴猴有１０．５％的时间受到替代父母、主要是成年雄性的照料。其中,７．３％的时间与成年雄性在一起,１．９％与非母亲成年雌性、１．３％与少年猴在一起。雄性较雌性更经常地照料（ｃａｒｅ）,探查（ｉｎｓｐｅｃｔｉｎｇ）,拉回（ｒｅｔｒｉｅｖｉｎｇ）,排斥（ｒｅｊｅｃｔｉｎｇ）婴猴;他们一般只与雄性婴猴玩耍（ｐｌａｙ）．雌性对新生儿兴趣更浓,较早出现探查婴猴的行为。少年猴经常与婴猴玩耍,但其它相互作用较少．替代父母行为可能被选择来补偿母亲在恶劣觅食条件下对子女的高投入．对婴猴的性“歧视”很可能源于母亲对女儿的照料多于儿子,和对雄婴勃起阴茎的“逗乐”反应．     

Allomaternal behavior in a group of free-ranging patas monkeys

A free-ranging group of patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas) containing 18 individually identifiable adult females was observed for approximately 400 hours, equally distributed over two two-month periods corresponding to the breeding and birth seasons, at the La Parguera facility of the Caribbean Primate Research Center. The large number of infants born in the spring and early summer (n = 14) allowed for detailed observations of alloparental behaviors, with a focus on allomothering by the adult females. Seven types of alloparental behaviors were recorded: contact, nuzzling, grooming, agonism, close visual inspection, attempted kidnapping, and kidnapping. Adult females emitted the vast majority of allomaternal behavior, the patterning and frequency of which closely resembled the patterning and frequency of inter-adult female social grooming. Relative dominance status of the participants did not consistently predict the directionality of allomothering. The most commonly observed allomaternal behaviors were contact and nuzzling, which are primarily affiliative behaviors; agonism was rare. Successful kidnapping occurred eight times. Immature monkeys (n = 22) emitted an additional 32 alloparental acts. A propensity towards allomothering by experienced females would be most beneficial to patas infants due to the patas' tendency towards dispersed foraging and rapid flight in the presence of danger. It is possible that direct competition with groups of rhesus macaques for available resources on the island served as a proximal cause for the allomothering observed in this patas group.     

The Evolution of Allomothering Behavior Among Colobine Monkeys: Function and Opportunism in Evolution

The great majority of Old World monkey females are interested in infants, particularly very young ones. Characteristically, females will approach infants cradled by their mothers and subsequently attempt to touch or hold them. For Cercopithecine monkeys, the subfamily that includes the baboons and macaques, caretaking attempts by females other than the mother are ordinarily unsuccessful, at least during the first two or three weeks of life. Mothers are highly possessive of their offspring and will not surrender them to substitute infant-caretakers. In striking contrast, among the other major subfamily of Old World monkeys, the Colobines, mothers readily allow extensive and sometimes prolonged infant carrying and handling by other females (allomothering), even on the first day of life. This paper reviews the traditional functional explanations for these different maternal systems. Stressing opportunism in evolution, the paper suggests that the social and/or genetic benefits alone are not adequate to account for the origins of allomothering behavior among Colobines. Instead, emphasis is given to the kind of ancestral social structure and its environmental context that might allow such a behavioral system to begin. It is hypothesized that, relative to the Cercopithecines, who do not exhibit infant-sharing, the dental morphology and digestive system of the Colobines produced food-acquiring and food-processing advantages that, in effect, reduced intragroup feeding competition and, concomitantly, reduced the importance of status differences between females. Such a social structure could permit the emergence of allomothering behavior since, for all the participants in this activity pattern, there are varying benefits that contribute to individual fitness. [Colobine, allomothering, functions, opportunism, dietary adaptations, social structure]     

Aunts and Mothers: Adaptive Implications of Allomaternal Behavior of Nonhuman Primates

Explanations of the function of behavior directed toward young primates by conspecifc females other than the mother have emphasized variow outcomes beneficial to "aunts, I' mothers, infants, or some combination thereof. There is little evidence, however, that allomothering benefits mothers or infants to any signifcant degree; allomothering is selfish behavior with highly variable consequences roughly predzctable on the basis of genealogical ties between participants. Selective consequences of infant kidnapping and aunting-to-death are examined, and a hypothesis is suggested concerning the adaptive significance for mothering of allomothering. [adoption, infant-stealing, behavioral selection]     

Response to novel housing in two groups of captive tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella)

The influence of age, maternal status, and the presence of a group male on use of space was assessed in two groups of captive tufted capuchin monkeys that underwent a move from indoor housing to a larger outdoor facility. Both groups originally contained two adult males, but only one group retained a male after the move. Following the move, mothers spent less time on the ground when carrying their infants than they did when not carrying their infants. In the group with no male (1) individuals decreased time spent on the ground relative to pre-move levels, whereas no such difference was noted in the group with the male; (2) females spent more time carrying their infants than did females in the group with a male. In the group with the adult male, juveniles spent less time on the ground than did non-mother adult females, whereas no difference had existed prior to the move. Grooming rates dropped from pre-move to post-move, but the mean number of partners with which each animal was in contact increased. Measures of social behavior varied across post-move observation periods inversely to time spent on the ground. These results are consistent with the view that an individual's relative vulnerability influences behavioral conservatism in novel environments, and suggests a relatively profound role for males in promoting exploration of new space in this species.     

Long-term study of infant-carrying behavior in captive common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus): Effect of nonreproductive helpers on the parents' carrying performance

Infant-carrying behavior in four families ofCallithrix jacchus was investigated over a period covering six to eight litters. We evaluated the effect of the total number of helpers and the number of adult helpers on the parents' carrying performance for the total carrying period and for three age stages of the infants. The carrying performance of the parents reached an asymptote beginning with litters 3 to 5. In two groups, the carrying performance of the parents was significantly negatively correlated with group size. However, considerable differences existed within each group and between the groups. The mother was the primary caregiver in the early weeks of the infants' lives. In this phase the helpers' contribution to carrying was less than might be expected. The relief of the parents from infant-carrying was greatest when the infants were 4 to 7 weeks old. Breeding males benefited most and from every helper, while breeding females benefited most from adult helpers, i.e., the carrying performance of the breeding female was considerably reduced until the respective group had grown to 8 to 10 members (infants not included). This group size is considered to be ideal for maximal relief of the parents from infant carrying. An increasing number of adult nonreproductive helpers (>4 or 5) does not induce a further reduction of the parents' carrying performance. Infant-rearing experience of nonreproductive helpers seems to be more important for the parents' and, especially, the breeding female's relief from infant-carrying than the overall number of helpers is. The data also strongly evidence that a group member's participation in infant-carrying is influenced by housing conditions and the demographic history of the group.     

Food sharing among captive Leontopithecus rosalia.

Captive L. rosalia were observed to exchange food routinely in family groups, a process varying from donation to theft. Donation involved the use of 'invitational' signals which operated most efficiently in parent-infant sharing and in donating live prey. Food moved, by sharing and theft, toward: (a) males prior to the female's first conception; (b) females during late pregnancy; (c) carriers of infants; (d) weanlings; (e) juveniles when infants died; (f) third animals in trios, regardless of their age and relatedness to the pair. Successful reproduction, a complex behavior involving all group members in cooperative infant care and provisioning, is probably enhanced by captive L. rosalia's food-sharing habits.     

Pre- and postpartum sex steroids in female marmosets (Callithrix kuhlii): is there a link with infant survivorship and maternal behavior?

Recent studies in primates have suggested that pre- and peripartum sex steroid hormones may be important determinants of maternal behavior and motivation, since higher levels of prepartum estrogen are associated with maternal competency and infant survivorship. To test the cross-species generality of this finding, we monitored excreted profiles of estradiol (E(2)), progesterone metabolites (pregnanediol glucuronide; PdG), and E(2):PdG ratios throughout pregnancy in black tufted-ear marmosets (Callithrix kuhlii). Additionally, we wanted to determine the extent to which variability in maternal carrying effort was related to hormonal factors and relative levels of maternal experience. For six females, hormonal profiles were determined by enzyme immunoassay for two pregnancies, one in which infants survived at least 2 weeks postpartum and one in which infants did not survive. Our within-subjects analyses revealed significant differences in mean prepartum E(2) levels for females in the different infant survival conditions. In contrast to previous findings, however, females exhibited significantly higher prepartum E(2) levels when their infants did not survive a minimum of 2 weeks postpartum, relative to when their infants did survive. Maternal carrying effort was also negatively and significantly correlated with prepartum E(2) levels. Unlike previous reports in callitrichid primates, then, our data suggest that high concentrations of prepartum E(2) in callitrichid primates are not necessarily associated with competent maternal behavior and may instead be associated with poor infant survivorship and inadequate maternal care. Further, our results appear to be convergent with research focusing on human mothers and may represent a common underlying mechanism linking prepartum estrogen and postpartum affect and behavior in some primates.     

Male-infant relationships in semifree-ranging Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) of affenberg salem/FRG: Testing the “male care” hypothesis

The infant-directed behavior of Barbary macaque males was analyzed in order to determine whether it is essential for an infant's survival during the first year and whether males interact selectively with closely related infants. Dyadic male-infant contacts were recorded in a large group of semifree-ranging Barbary macaques. Data collected during the first 12 weeks of life on each infant born in 1983 (n = 36) were analyzed. All adult and almost all subadult males established strong relationships with at least one infant. Almost two-thirds of the infants (22) had frequent contacts with one or several males. Males showed no preference for closely related infants. Sexual associations with an infant's mother during the preceding mating season had no significant effect. Natal males did not prefer infants of their own matrilineage. There was no evidence that contacts with males had a positive influence on infant survival or that other benefits to the infants resulted from these contacts. Instead, excessive carrying by males and females led to starvation of some very young infants and was a major cause of neonatal deaths in this population. Males interacted preferentially with infants that were born early in the birth season, had a high-ranking multiparous mother, and were male. Younger males established strong relationships with male infants only, while mother's rank was more important for older males. It is suggested that certain mothers prevented early contacts between their infants and males so that the observed preferences for certain infants were also a result of easier access to them. All results suggested that males interacted with infants for their own benefit.     

The costs of infant carrying in captive cotton-top tamarins

Marmosets and tamarins have a communal rearing system in which all group members help to care for the twin infants characteristic of this family of primates. Helpers are likely to incur time and energy costs by contributing to infant care. Predictions that cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) helpers would change their behavior when carrying infants because of reduced mobility and/or a need for increased vigilance were tested in a captive colony. Tamarins carrying an infant spent significantly less time feeding, foraging, moving, or engaging in social activities such as grooming than they did when not carrying. Frequencies of scratching, autogrooming, and scent marking were significantly reduced in carriers, suggesting that their mobility was reduced. However, carriers were significantly less likely to be vigilant (measured by direction of gaze) than when not carrying. Further observations showed that carriers spent more time in concealed areas than they did when not carrying and were probably therefore adopting a cryptic strategy to reduce predation risks to themselves and to infants. These results demonstrate that tamarin helpers pay costs by carrying infants. Some possible compensating benefits are indicated.