Human-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus from a Subtropical Recreational Marine Beach

Reports of Staphylococcus aureus including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) detected in marine environments have occurred since the early 1990s. This investigation sought to isolate and characterize S. aureus from marine waters and sand at a subtropical recreational beach, with and without bathers present, in order to investigate possible sources and to identify the risks to bathers of exposure to these organisms. During 40 days over 17 months, 1,001 water and 36 intertidal sand samples were collected by either bathers or investigators at a subtropical recreational beach. Methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) and MRSA were isolated and identified using selective growth media and an organism-specific molecular marker. Antimicrobial susceptibility, staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) type, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) pattern, multi-locus sequence type (MLST), and staphylococcal protein A (spa) type were characterized for all MRSA. S. aureus was isolated from 248 (37 %) bather nearby water samples at a concentration range of <2–780 colony forming units per ml, 102 (31 %) ambient water samples at a concentration range of <2–260 colony forming units per ml, and 9 (25 %) sand samples. Within the sand environment, S. aureus was isolated more often from above the intertidal zone than from intermittently wet or inundated sand. A total of 1334 MSSA were isolated from 37 sampling days and 22 MRSA were isolated from ten sampling days. Seventeen of the 22 MRSA were identified by PFGE as the community-associated MRSA USA300. MRSA isolates were all SCCmec type IVa, encompassed five spa types (t008, t064, t622, t688, and t723), two MLST types (ST8 and ST5), and 21 of 22 isolates carried the genes for Panton–Valentine leukocidin. There was a correlation (r?=?0.45; p?=?0.05) between the daily average number of bathers and S. aureus in the water; however, no association between exposure to S. aureus in these waters and reported illness was found. This report supports the concept that humans are a potential direct source for S. aureus in marine waters.     

The Behavior of Organic Phosphorus under Non-Point Source Wastewater in the Presence of Phototrophic Periphyton

To understand the role of ubiquitous phototrophic periphyton in aquatic ecosystem on the biogeochemical cycling of organic phosphorus, the conversion and removal kinetic characteristics of organic phosphorus (Porg) such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) were investigated in the presence of the periphyton cultured in artificial non-point source wastewater. The preliminary results showed that the periphyton was very powerful in converting P_org evidenced by the fact that inorganic phosphorus (P_inorg) content in solution increased from about 0.7 to 14.3 mg P L⁻¹ in 48 hours in the presence of 0.6 g L⁻¹ periphyton. This was because the periphyton could produce abundant phosphatases that benefited the conversion of P_org to P_inrog. Moreover, this conversion process was described more suitable by the pseudo-first-order kinetic model. The periphyton was also effective in removing P_org, which showed that the P_org can be completely removed even when the initial P_org concentration was as high as 13 mg P L⁻¹ in 48 hours in the presence of 1.6 g L⁻¹ periphyton. Furthermore, it was found that biosorption dominated the P_org removal process and exhibited the characteristics of physical adsorption. However, this biosorption process by the periphyton was significantly influenced by biomass (absorbent dosage) and temperature. This work provides insights into P_org biogeochemical circulation of aquatic ecosystem that contained the periphyton or similar microbial aggregates.     

Presence of Amoebae in the Rhizosphere of a Beach Grass1

The occurrence of amoebae in the rhizosphere of a beach grass (Panicum sp.) collected at the Hempstead Lake State Park, Long Island, New York, was investigated throughout the growing season of 198 1. Amoebae achieved increased population density in the root system when compared with that in the surrounding bare sand; moreover, numbers of amoebae were higher only during the period of active plant growth and up to flowering. Following flowering, the numbers of amoebae in the root system fell to the level found in bare sand. The species diversity of amoebae in this system was compared with that in the carposphere of the mushroom Laccaria trullisata which appears at the same site but at a different time of year.     

饮用水水源与自来水中病毒和指示细菌存在水平的比较研究

自来水中人肠道病毒的存在已引起人们极大的关切和忧虑。本文报道了武汉东湖水和以东湖为水源的自来水中病毒和指示细菌的存在水平。水源水经过预加氯消毒、絮凝沉淀、砂滤和最后加氯消毒处理而成的自来水中细菌总数检测范围是41—500/升,总大肠菌是2—13/升、粪大肠菌为0—4/升、大肠菌噬菌体是0—13.6PFU/升,平均2.48PFU/升,肠道病毒为0—78PFU/升,平均为6.7PFU/升。水源水经制水工艺处理去除指示细菌、大肠菌噬菌体和肠道病毒的效率分别为97.95—99.99％,90.63％和53.18％。这种结果说明自来水制水工艺能有效地降低指示细菌,大肠菌噬菌体,而去除肠道病毒效率较低,揭示肠道病毒对环境压专的耐受性明显地比指示细菌强。     

Influence of Soil on Fecal Indicator Organisms in a Tidally Influenced Subtropical Environment

The potential regrowth of fecal indicator bacteria released into coastal environments in recreational water bodies has been of concern, especially in tropical and subtropical areas where the number of these bacteria can be artificially elevated beyond that from fecal impacts alone. The task of determining the factors that influence indicator bacterial regrowth was addressed though a series of field sampling and laboratory experiments using in situ densities of Escherichia coli, enterococci, and Clostridium perfringens in river water, sediment, and soil. Field sampling efforts included the collection of surface sediments along the cross section of a riverbank, a 20-cm-deep soil core, and additional surface soils from remote locations. In addition to field sampling, two types of laboratory experiments were conducted. The first experiment investigated the survival of bacteria already present in river water with the addition of sterile and unsterile sediment. The second experiment was designed to simulate the wetting and drying effects due to tidal cycles. The results from the sampling study found elevated numbers of E. coli and C. perfringens in surficial sediments along the riverbank near the edge of the water. C. perfringens was found in high numbers in the subsurface samples obtained from the soil core. Results from laboratory experiments revealed a significant amount of regrowth for enterococci and E. coli with the simulation of tides and addition of sterile sediment. Regrowth was not observed for C. perfringens. This study demonstrates the need to further evaluate the characteristics of indicator microbes within tropical and subtropical water systems where natural vegetation, soil embankments, and long-term sediment accumulation are present. In such areas, the use of traditional indicator microbes to regulate recreational uses of a water body may not be appropriate.     

Comparative Survival of Indicator Bacteria and Enteric Pathogens in Well Water

The comparative survival of various fecal indicator bacteria and enteric pathogens was studied in a stable well water supply by using membrane chambers. There was more variation in the 29 coliform cultures and they died more rapidly, as a group, than the 20 enterococcus cultures that were examined. The comparative survival of the organisms tested follows: Aeromonas sp. > the shigellae (Shigella flexneri, S. sonnei, and S. dysenteriae) > fecal streptococci > coliforms = some salmonellae (Salmonella enteritidis ser. paratyphi A and D, S. enteritidis ser. typhimurium) > Streptococcus equinus > Vibrio cholerae > Salmonella typhi > Streptococcus bovis > Salmonella enteritidis ser. paratyphi B. S. bovis had a more rapid die-off than did S. equinus, but both had significantly shorter half-lives than the other streptococci. The natural populations of indicator bacteria from human and elk fecal material declined similarly to the pure cultures tested, whereas the die-off of fecal streptococci exceeded the coliforms from bovine fecal material.     

Turning the Table: Plants Consume Microbes as a Source of Nutrients

Interactions between plants and microbes in soil, the final frontier of ecology, determine the availability of nutrients to plants and thereby primary production of terrestrial ecosystems. Nutrient cycling in soils is considered a battle between autotrophs and heterotrophs in which the latter usually outcompete the former, although recent studies have questioned the unconditional reign of microbes on nutrient cycles and the plants'' dependence on microbes for breakdown of organic matter. Here we present evidence indicative of a more active role of plants in nutrient cycling than currently considered. Using fluorescent-labeled non-pathogenic and non-symbiotic strains of a bacterium and a fungus (Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, respectively), we demonstrate that microbes enter root cells and are subsequently digested to release nitrogen that is used in shoots. Extensive modifications of root cell walls, as substantiated by cell wall outgrowth and induction of genes encoding cell wall synthesizing, loosening and degrading enzymes, may facilitate the uptake of microbes into root cells. Our study provides further evidence that the autotrophy of plants has a heterotrophic constituent which could explain the presence of root-inhabiting microbes of unknown ecological function. Our discovery has implications for soil ecology and applications including future sustainable agriculture with efficient nutrient cycles.     

Sediment Contaminants and Infauna Associated with Recreational Boating Structures in a Multi-Use Marine Park

Multi-use marine parks achieve conservation through spatial management of activities. Zoning of marine parks in New South Wales, Australia, includes high conservation areas and special purpose zones (SPZ) where maritime activities are concentrated. Although such measures geographically constrain anthropogenic impacts, we have limited understanding of potential ecological effects. We assessed sediment communities and contaminants adjacent to boating infrastructure (boat ramps, jetties and a marina) in a SPZ from the Clyde Estuary in Batemans Marine Park. Metal concentrations and fines content were elevated at boating structures compared to reference sites. Species richness was higher at sites with boating structures, where capitellid polychaetes and nematodes dominated the communities. Changes associated with boating structures were localised and did not extend beyond breakwalls or to reference sites outside the SPZ. The study highlights the benefits of appropriate zoning in a multi-use marine park and the potential to minimise stress on pristine areas through the application of spatial management.     

Persistence and Differential Survival of Fecal Indicator Bacteria in Subtropical Waters and Sediments

Fecal coliforms and enterococci are indicator organisms used worldwide to monitor water quality. These bacteria are used in microbial source tracking (MST) studies, which attempt to assess the contribution of various host species to fecal pollution in water. Ideally, all strains of a given indicator organism (IO) would experience equal persistence (maintenance of culturable populations) in water; however, some strains may have comparatively extended persistence outside the host, while others may persist very poorly in environmental waters. Assessment of the relative contribution of host species to fecal pollution would be confounded by differential persistence of strains. Here, freshwater and saltwater mesocosms, including sediments, were inoculated with dog feces, sewage, or contaminated soil and were incubated under conditions that included natural stressors such as microbial predators, radiation, and temperature fluctuations. Persistence of IOs was measured by decay rates (change in culturable counts over time). Decay rates were influenced by IO, inoculum, water type, sediment versus water column location, and Escherichia coli strain. Fecal coliform decay rates were significantly lower than those of enterococci in freshwater but were not significantly different in saltwater. IO persistence according to mesocosm treatment followed the trend: contaminated soil > wastewater > dog feces. E. coli ribotyping demonstrated that certain strains were more persistent than others in freshwater mesocosms, and the distribution of ribotypes sampled from mesocosm waters was dissimilar from the distribution in fecal material. These results have implications for the accuracy of MST methods, modeling of microbial populations in water, and efficacy of regulatory standards for protection of water quality.     

Volatilization and Precipitation of Tellurium by Aerobic, Tellurite-Resistant Marine Microbes

Microbial resistance to tellurite, an oxyanion of tellurium, is widespread in the biosphere, but the geochemical significance of this trait is poorly understood. As some tellurite resistance markers appear to mediate the formation of volatile tellurides, the potential contribution of tellurite-resistant microbial strains to trace element volatilization in salt marsh sediments was evaluated. Microbial strains were isolated aerobically on the basis of tellurite resistance and subsequently examined for their capacity to volatilize tellurium in pure cultures. The tellurite-resistant strains recovered were either yeasts related to marine isolates of Rhodotorula spp. or gram-positive bacteria related to marine strains within the family Bacillaceae based on rRNA gene sequence comparisons. Most strains produced volatile tellurides, primarily dimethyltelluride, though there was a wide range of the types and amounts of species produced. For example, the Rhodotorula spp. produced the greatest quantities and highest diversity of volatile tellurium compounds. All strains also produced methylated sulfur compounds, primarily dimethyldisulfide. Intracellular tellurium precipitates were a major product of tellurite metabolism in all strains tested, with nearly complete recovery of the tellurite initially provided to cultures as a precipitate. Different strains appeared to produce different shapes and sizes of tellurium containing nanostructures. These studies suggest that aerobic marine yeast and Bacillus spp. may play a greater role in trace element biogeochemistry than has been previously assumed, though additional work is needed to further define and quantify their specific contributions.     

Lack of Direct Effects of Agrochemicals on Zoonotic Pathogens and Fecal Indicator Bacteria

Agrochemicals, fecal indicator bacteria (FIB), and pathogens frequently contaminate water simultaneously. No significant direct effects of fertilizer, atrazine, malathion, and chlorothalonil on the survival of Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Salmonella enterica, human polyomaviruses, and adenovirus were detected, supporting the assertion that previously observed effects of agrochemicals on FIB were indirect.     

农业非点源污染研究现状与发展趋势

水危机已成为世界上最引人关注的问题之一。无论是发达国家,还是发展中国家,都已经或即将面临着这一危机。而在干旱与半干旱地区尤为紧迫。引起水危机的主要原因有二：一是从长远来讲,水资源是有限的,而目前由于世界人口持续增加引起对水资源需求的膨胀使得这一危机加...     

基于径流路径的分布式面源污染模型研发与应用进展

精准刻画地表径流的路径及其所携带的面源污染物随径流的输移过程是准确估算面源污染入水体量、污染关键源区辨识和高效防控的关键,在我国以小农户种植为主、景观特征复杂的地理条件下尤为重要。鉴于目前常用的面源污染模型大都起源于国外,往往对径流路径的空间差异性及污染物陆面输移过程进行概化,介绍了一个基于径流路径的分布式面源污染模型(STEM-NPS)及其研发与应用进展。阐述了该模型的研发背景、模型原理和结构,说明了STEM-NPS模型对地表径流汇流及其所携带的污染物输移过程的精细化表达方法;介绍了该模型在不同地理环境及尺度的应用进展,展示了其在地块尺度的面源污染关键源区辨识,关键过程和关键影响因素解析及面源污染监管决策支持等方面的功能;探讨了STEM-NPS模型与其他常用模型的异同,并结合生态学研究和面源污染精准防控的需求,提出模型的应用前景及进一步发展的方向。     

Foreshore Sand as a Source of Escherichia coli in Nearshore Water of a Lake Michigan Beach

Swimming advisories due to excessive Escherichia coli concentrations are common at 63rd Street Beach, Chicago, Ill. An intensive study was undertaken to characterize the source and fate of E. coli in beach water and sand at the beach. From April through September 2000, water and sand samples were collected daily or twice daily at two depths on three consecutive days per week (water samples, n = 1,747; sand samples, n = 858); hydrometeorological conditions and bird and bather distributions were also recorded. E. coli concentrations in sand and water were significantly correlated, with the highest concentration being found in foreshore sand, followed by those in submerged sediment and water of increasing depth. Gull contributions to E. coli densities in sand and water were most apparent on the day following gull activity in a given area. E. coli recolonized newly placed foreshore sand within 2 weeks. Analysis of variance, correlation, cluster analyses, concentration gradients, temporal-spatial distribution, demographic patterns, and DNA fingerprinting suggest that E. coli may be able to sustain population density in temperate beach sand during summer months without external inputs. This research presents evidence that foreshore beach sand (i) plays a major role in bacterial lake water quality, (ii) is an important non-point source of E. coli to lake water rather than a net sink, (iii) may be environmentally, and perhaps hygienically, problematic, and (iv) is possibly capable of supporting an autochthonous, high density of indicator bacteria for sustained periods, independent of lake, human, or animal input.     

Depth and Medium-Scale Spatial Processes Influence Fish Assemblage Structure of Unconsolidated Habitats in a Subtropical Marine Park

Where biological datasets are spatially limited, abiotic surrogates have been advocated to inform objective planning for Marine Protected Areas. However, this approach assumes close correlation between abiotic and biotic patterns. The Solitary Islands Marine Park, northern NSW, Australia, currently uses a habitat classification system (HCS) to assist with planning, but this is based only on data for reefs. We used Baited Remote Underwater Videos (BRUVs) to survey fish assemblages of unconsolidated substrata at different depths, distances from shore, and across an along-shore spatial scale of 10 s of km (2 transects) to examine how well the HCS works for this dominant habitat. We used multivariate regression modelling to examine the importance of these, and other environmental factors (backscatter intensity, fine-scale bathymetric variation and rugosity), in structuring fish assemblages. There were significant differences in fish assemblages across depths, distance from shore, and over the medium spatial scale of the study: together, these factors generated the optimum model in multivariate regression. However, marginal tests suggested that backscatter intensity, which itself is a surrogate for sediment type and hardness, might also influence fish assemblages and needs further investigation. Species richness was significantly different across all factors: however, total MaxN only differed significantly between locations. This study demonstrates that the pre-existing abiotic HCS only partially represents the range of fish assemblages of unconsolidated habitats in the region.     

Presence of Bacteroidales as a Predictor of Pathogens in Surface Waters of the Central California Coast

The value of Bacteroidales genetic markers and fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) to predict the occurrence of waterborne pathogens was evaluated in ambient waters along the central California coast. Bacteroidales host-specific quantitative PCR (qPCR) was used to quantify fecal bacteria in water and provide insights into contributing host fecal sources. Over 140 surface water samples from 10 major rivers and estuaries within the Monterey Bay region were tested over 14 months with four Bacteroidales-specific assays (universal, human, dog, and cow), three FIB (total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and enterococci), two protozoal pathogens (Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp.), and four bacterial pathogens (Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp., and Vibrio spp.). Indicator and pathogen distribution was widespread, and detection was not highly seasonal. Vibrio cholerae was detected most frequently, followed by Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Salmonella, and Campylobacter spp. Bayesian conditional probability analysis was used to characterize the Bacteroidales performance assays, and the ratios of concentrations determined using host-specific and universal assays were used to show that fecal contamination from human sources was more common than livestock or dog sources in coastal study sites. Correlations were seen between some, but not all, indicator-pathogen combinations. The ability to predict pathogen occurrence in relation to indicator threshold cutoff levels was evaluated using a weighted measure that showed the universal Bacteroidales genetic marker to have a comparable or higher mean predictive potential than standard FIB. This predictive ability, in addition to the Bacteroidales assays providing information on contributing host fecal sources, supports using Bacteroidales assays in water quality monitoring programs.Coastal waters worldwide have been influenced by human activities for centuries, as they are adjacent to densely populated areas, provide a means of transportation, and receive substantial recreational use. Consequently, impairments in nearshore water quality can result from enrichment of the coastal marine ecosystem with pollutants and nutrients that are transported down watersheds from land to sea. This poses health risks to humans and animals. Microbial pollution is caused by fecal contamination from a variety of sources, including humans, livestock, pets, and wildlife, and fecal pathogen pollution has been associated with numerous outbreaks of waterborne disease (14, 15, 27, 41, 49, 55).Fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) that normally reside in the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals are used throughout the world to assess the microbiological quality of drinking and recreational waters. In the United States, FIB are used to define bacterial water quality standards aimed at reducing health risks in recreational waters, as required by the Beaches Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health Act (5), which amended the Clean Water Act (11). Groups of standard FIB monitored in water include total coliforms (TC), fecal coliforms (FC), Escherichia coli bacteria, and enterococci. These bacterial groups have been considered indicators of health risks in epidemiologic and quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) studies (38, 42, 59, 66).To date, many monitoring programs have focused only on FIB measurements and do not test for pathogens. However, substantial evidence has been collected that challenges the usefulness of FIB data alone. A few limitations of using standard FIB to represent pathogens in water include the fact that FIB have been shown to multiply in the environment, that they are not host specific, and that the absence of FIB is not necessarily evidence of pathogen absence (21, 50, 51, 56). Consequently, alternative indicators of fecal pollution that address the weaknesses of standard FIB are needed. Ideally, these indicators would decay at rates similar to those of pathogens, be present at high concentrations in fecal sources, and be present at low concentrations in unpolluted environments. Proposed alternative indicators include (i) anaerobic bacteria such as bifidobacteria (46), Clostridium perfringens (22), and Bacteroidales (20); (ii) viruses such as F-specific RNA (F-RNA)-specific coliphages (39), phages infecting Bacteroides fragilis (30), and host-specific viruses (25); and (iii) chemical compounds such as fecal sterols (29). An added benefit of using alternative indicators is that, in some cases, host sources of fecal contamination can be identified.Over a decade ago, PCR-based assays were developed to detect Bacteroides in an effort to monitor human fecal pollution in the environment (36, 37). This approach was adopted by others and further advanced to identify host-specific Bacteroidales 16S rRNA gene markers for different fecal sources. This has resulted in PCR and quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays for the detection of human, dog, pig, and cow Bacteroidales markers (6, 7, 16, 34, 57) as well as assays for the detection of general Bacteroidales markers (7, 34). The analysis of Bacteroidales markers has been incorporated in microbial source tracking (MST) studies, particularly in the United States, Japan, and Europe (24, 45, 52-54, 64).The objective of this study was to compare the abilities of Bacteroidales markers and FIB to predict the occurrence of waterborne pathogens in riverine and estuarine waters in California and to use several statistical approaches to better characterize the strengths and limitations of the assays. We hypothesized that Bacteroidales and FIB would correlate with bacterial and protozoal pathogen detection in surface waters. To test this hypothesis, four Bacteroidales-specific assays (universal, human, dog, and cow), three types of FIB (total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and enterococci), two protozoal pathogens (Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp.), and four bacterial pathogens (Campylobacter spp., E. coli O157, Salmonella spp., and Vibrio spp.) were monitored monthly for 14 months in 10 streams, rivers, and estuaries feeding into the Monterey Bay region of California.     

Evaluating the Effects of Land Use Planning for Non-Point Source Pollution Based on a System Dynamics Approach in China

Urbanization is proceeding rapidly in several developing countries such as China. This accelerating urbanization alters the existing land use types in a way that results in more Non-Point Source (NPS) pollution to local surface waters. Reasonable land use planning is necessary. This paper compares seven planning scenarios of a case study area, namely Wulijie, China, from the perspective of NPS pollution. A System Dynamics (SD) model was built for the comparison to adequately capture the planning complexity. These planning scenarios, which were developed by combining different land use intensities (LUIs) and construction speeds (CSs), were then simulated. The results show that compared to scenario S1 (business as usual) all other scenarios will introduce more NPS pollution (with an incremental rate of 22%-70%) to Wulijie. Scenario S6 was selected as the best because it induced relatively less NPS pollution while simultaneously maintaining a considerable development rate. Although LUIs represent a more critical factor compared to CSs, we conclude that both LUIs and CSs need to be taken into account to make the planning more environmentally friendly. Considering the power of SD in decision support, it is recommended that land use planning should take into consideration findings acquired from SD simulations.     

Dissolved Organic Matter as a Potential Source of Nutrition for Marine Organisms

The general features of accumulation of amino acids by marineinvertebrates are outlined. The wide distribution of this abilityis noted. Data from observations of this process for periodsof several days are presented for the polychaete worm, Doruilleaarticulata. Measurements of the constituents in the pool offree amino acids of this same organism are presented togetherwith data concerning the rate of appearance of radioactivityin the medium after permitting animals to accumulate amino acids.These data permit tentative estimates of rates at which aminoacids are lost to the medium. These apparent "leakage" ratesare low when compared with rates of uptake. The thermodynamicwork necessary to move material against the concentration differencesinvolved is calculated. The fraction of metabolic energy neededis small. The possible biological significance of uptake ofsmall organic compounds is discussed. It is concluded that uptakeof amino acids occurs sufficiently generally and at such ratesthat it should be included in any analysis of the pathways wherebymaterial is acquired from the environment by marine organisms.