Targeting the miRNA-155/TNFSF10 network restrains inflammatory response in the retina in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease

Age-related disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and age-related macular degeneration (AMD) share common features such as amyloid-β (Aβ) protein accumulation. Retinal deposition of Aβ aggregates in AMD patients has suggested a potential link between AMD and AD. In the present study, we analyzed the expression pattern of a focused set of miRNAs, previously found to be involved in both AD and AMD, in the retina of a triple transgenic mouse model of AD (3xTg-AD) at different time-points. Several miRNAs were differentially expressed in the retina of 3xTg-AD mice, compared to the retina of age-matched wild-type (WT) mice. In particular, bioinformatic analysis revealed that miR-155 had a central role in miRNA-gene network stability, regulating several pathways, including apoptotic and inflammatory signaling pathways modulated by TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TNFSF10). We showed that chronic treatment of 3xTg-AD mice with an anti-TNFSF10 monoclonal antibody was able to inhibit the retinal expression of miR-155, which inversely correlated with the expression of its molecular target SOCS-1. Moreover, the fine-tuned mechanism related to TNFSF10 immunoneutralization was tightly linked to modulation of TNFSF10 itself and its death receptor TNFRSF10B, along with cytokine production by microglia, reactive gliosis, and specific AD-related neuropathological hallmarks (i.e., Aβ deposition and Tau phosphorylation) in the retina of 3xTg-AD mice. In conclusion, immunoneutralization of TNFSF10 significantly preserved the retinal tissue in 3xTg-AD mice, suggesting its potential therapeutic application in retinal degenerative disorders.Subject terms: Alzheimer''s disease, Neurodegeneration     

Age-Dependent Neuroplasticity Mechanisms in Alzheimer Tg2576 Mice Following Modulation of Brain Amyloid-β Levels

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of modulating brain amyloid-β (Aβ) levels at different stages of amyloid pathology on synaptic function, inflammatory cell changes and hippocampal neurogenesis, i.e. processes perturbed in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Young (4- to 6-month-old) and older (15- to 18-month-old) APP_SWE transgenic (Tg2576) mice were treated with the AD candidate drug (+)-phenserine for 16 consecutive days. We found significant reductions in insoluble Aβ1-42 levels in the cortices of both young and older transgenic mice, while significant reductions in soluble Aβ1-42 levels and insoluble Aβ1-40 levels were only found in animals aged 15–18 months. Autoradiography binding with the amyloid ligand Pittsburgh Compound B (³H-PIB) revealed a trend for reduced fibrillar Aβ deposition in the brains of older phenserine-treated Tg2576 mice. Phenserine treatment increased cortical synaptophysin levels in younger mice, while decreased interleukin-1β and increased monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels were detected in the cortices of older mice. The reduction in Aβ1-42 levels was associated with an increased number of bromodeoxyuridine-positive proliferating cells in the hippocampi of both young and older Tg2576 mice. To determine whether the increased cell proliferation was accompanied by increased neuronal production, the endogenous early neuronal marker doublecortin (DCX) was examined in the dentate gyrus (DG) using immunohistochemical detection. Although no changes in the total number of DCX⁺-expressing neurons were detected in the DG in Tg2576 mice at either age following (+)-phenserine treatment, dendritic arborization was increased in differentiating neurons in young Tg2576 mice. Collectively, these findings indicate that reducing Aβ1-42 levels in Tg2576 mice at an early pathological stage affects synaptic function by modulating the maturation and plasticity of newborn neurons in the brain. In contrast, lowering Aβ levels in Tg2576 mice when Aβ plaque pathology is prominent mainly alters the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines.     

Traumatic Brain Injury Precipitates Cognitive Impairment and Extracellular Aβ Aggregation in Alzheimer's Disease Transgenic Mice

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) has become a signature wound of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Many American soldiers, even those undiagnosed but likely suffering from mild TBI, display Alzheimer''s disease (AD)-like cognitive impairments, suggesting a pathological overlap between TBI and AD. This study examined the cognitive and neurohistological effects of TBI in presymptomatic APP/PS1 AD-transgenic mice. AD mice and non-transgenic (NT) mice received an experimental TBI on the right parietal cortex using the controlled cortical impact model. Animals were trained in a water maze task for spatial memory before TBI, and then reevaluated in the same task at two and six weeks post-TBI. The results showed that AD mice with TBI made significantly more errors in the task than AD mice without TBI and NT mice regardless of TBI. A separate group of AD mice and NT mice were evaluated neurohistologically at six weeks after TBI. The number of extracellular beta-amyloid (Aβ)-deposits significantly increased by at least one fold in the cortex of AD mice that received TBI compared to the NT mice that received TBI or the AD and NT mice that underwent sham surgery. A significant decrease in MAP2 positive cells, indicating neuronal loss, was observed in the cortex of both the AD and NT mice that received TBI compared to the AD and NT mice subjected to sham surgery. Similar changes in extracellular Aβ deposits and MAP2 positive cells were also seen in the hippocampus. These results demonstrate for the first time that TBI precipitates cognitive impairment in presymptomatic AD mice, while also confirming extracellular Aβ deposits following TBI. The recognition of this pathological link between TBI and AD should aid in developing novel treatments directed at abrogating cellular injury and extracellular Aβ deposition in the brain.     

Amyloid β / PKC-dependent alterations in NMDA receptor composition are detected in early stages of Alzheimer´s disease

Amyloid beta (Aβ)-mediated synapse dysfunction is an early event in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathogenesis and previous studies suggest that NMDA receptor (NMDAR) dysregulation may contribute to these pathological effects. Although Aβ peptides impair NMDAR expression and activity, the mechanisms mediating these alterations in the early stages of AD are unclear. Here, we observed that NMDAR subunit NR2B and PSD-95 levels were aberrantly upregulated and correlated with Aβ₄₂ load in human postsynaptic fractions of the prefrontal cortex in early stages of AD patients, as well as in the hippocampus of 3xTg-AD mice. Importantly, NR2B and PSD95 dysregulation was revealed by an increased expression of both proteins in Aβ-injected mouse hippocampi. In cultured neurons, Aβ oligomers increased the NR2B-containing NMDAR density in neuronal membranes and the NMDA-induced intracellular Ca²⁺ increase, in addition to colocalization in dendrites of NR2B subunit and PSD95. Mechanistically, Aβ oligomers required integrin β1 to promote synaptic location and function of NR2B-containing NMDARs and PSD95 by phosphorylation through classic PKCs. These results provide evidence that Aβ oligomers modify the contribution of NR2B to NMDAR composition and function in the early stages of AD through an integrin β1 and PKC-dependent pathway. These data reveal a novel role of Aβ oligomers in synaptic dysfunction that may be relevant to early-stage AD pathogenesis.Subject terms: Alzheimer''s disease, Extracellular signalling molecules     

Dietary zinc supplementation of 3xTg-AD mice increases BDNF levels and prevents cognitive deficits as well as mitochondrial dysfunction

The overall effect of brain zinc (Zn²⁺) in the progression and development of Alzheimer''s disease (AD) is still not completely understood. Although an excess of Zn²⁺ can exacerbate the pathological features of AD, a deficit of Zn²⁺ intake has also been shown to increase the volume of amyloid plaques in AD transgenic mice. In this study, we investigated the effect of dietary Zn²⁺ supplementation (30 p.p.m.) in a transgenic mouse model of AD, the 3xTg-AD, that expresses both β amyloid (Aβ)- and tau-dependent pathology. We found that Zn²⁺ supplementation greatly delays hippocampal-dependent memory deficits and strongly reduces both Aβ and tau pathology in the hippocampus. We also evaluated signs of mitochondrial dysfunction and found that Zn²⁺ supplementation prevents the age-dependent respiratory deficits we observed in untreated 3xTg-AD mice. Finally, we found that Zn²⁺ supplementation greatly increases the levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) of treated 3xTg-AD mice. In summary, our data support the idea that controlling the brain Zn²⁺ homeostasis may be beneficial in the treatment of AD.     

Intracerebroventricular Streptozotocin Exacerbates Alzheimer-Like Changes of 3xTg-AD Mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) involves several possible molecular mechanisms, including impaired brain insulin signaling and glucose metabolism. To investigate the role of metabolic insults in AD, we injected streptozotocin (STZ), a diabetogenic compound if used in the periphery, into the lateral ventricle of the 6-month-old 3xTg-AD mice and studied the cognitive function as well as AD-like brain abnormalities, such as tau phosphorylation and Aβ accumulation, 3–6 weeks later. We found that STZ exacerbated impairment of short-term and spatial reference memory in 3xTg-AD mice. We also observed an increase in tau hyperphosphorylation and neuroinflammation, a disturbance of brain insulin signaling, and a decrease in synaptic plasticity and amyloid β peptides in the brain after STZ treatment. The expression of 20 AD-related genes, including those involved in the processing of amyloid precursor protein, cytoskeleton, glucose metabolism, insulin signaling, synaptic function, protein kinases, and apoptosis, was altered, suggesting that STZ disturbs multiple metabolic and cell signaling pathways in the brain. These findings provide experimental evidence of the role of metabolic insult in AD.     

脂联素改善阿尔茨海默病模型小鼠焦虑情绪及工作记忆

目的：探讨脂联素（APN）预处理对9月龄三转基因阿尔茨海默病（3xTg-AD）模型小鼠学习记忆能力和焦虑情绪的影响。方法：选取9月龄3xTg-AD小鼠及C57BL/6J小鼠,分为4组：WT+Saline组、3xTg-AD+Saline组、WT+APN组和3xTg-AD+APN组,每组8只。将全部小鼠进行侧脑室埋管术后,恢复7 d,在自由清醒状态下分别经侧脑室给予生理盐水或APN,采用旷场、新物体识别及Y-迷宫3种行为学手段检测小鼠的情绪及学习记忆能力。结果：①在旷场实验中,与WT+Saline组小鼠相比,3xTg-AD+Saline组小鼠在中央区域的活动时间明显缩短,在外周区域的活动时间明显延长,给予APN后可有效逆转3xTg-AD小鼠的该现象,表明脂联素可有效缓解3xTg-AD小鼠的焦虑情绪。②新物体识别实验中,3xTg-AD+Saline组小鼠的辨别指数为（-16.7±10.1）%,明显低于WT+Saline组的（18.0±8.2）%（P<0.01）和3xTg-AD+APN组的（15.7±8.8）%（P<0.01）,表明脂联素可明显改善3xTg-AD小鼠的识别记忆能力损伤。③Y-迷宫实验中,3xTg-AD+Saline组小鼠的自发交替正确率为（40.0±1.7）%,明显低于WT+Saline组的（56.6±4.6）%（P<0.01）和3xTg-AD+APN组的（53.9±5.6）%（P<0.01）,表明脂联素能够逆转3xTg-AD小鼠工作记忆能力的损伤。结论：脂联素可以改善9月龄3xTg-AD小鼠的焦虑情绪及识别记忆和工作记忆能力损伤,可能在AD的预防和治疗中发挥有效作用。     

Sex-Dependent Alterations in Social Behaviour and Cortical Synaptic Activity Coincide at Different Ages in a Model of Alzheimer’s Disease

Besides memory deficits, Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients suffer from neuropsychiatric symptoms, including alterations in social interactions, which are subject of a growing number of investigations in transgenic models of AD. Yet the biological mechanisms underlying these behavioural alterations are poorly understood. Here, a social interaction paradigm was used to assess social dysfunction in the triple-transgenic mouse model of AD (3xTg-AD). We observed that transgenic mice displayed dimorphic behavioural abnormalities at different ages. Social disinhibition was observed in 18 months old 3xTg-AD males compared to age and sex-matched control mice. In 3xTg-AD females, social disinhibition was present at 12 months followed by reduced social interactions at 18 months. These dimorphic behavioural alterations were not associated with alterations in AD neuropathological markers such as Aβ or tau levels in the frontal cortex. However, patch-clamp recordings revealed that enhanced social interactions coincided temporally with an increase in both excitatory and inhibitory basal synaptic inputs to layer 2–3 pyramidal neurons in the prefrontal cortex. These findings uncover a novel pattern of occurrence of psychiatric-like symptoms between sexes in an AD model. Our results also reveal that functional alterations in synapse activity appear as a potentially significant substrate underlying behavioural correlates of AD.     

Early astrocytic atrophy in the entorhinal cortex of a triple transgenic animal model of Alzheimer's disease

The EC (entorhinal cortex) is fundamental for cognitive and mnesic functions. Thus damage to this area appears as a key element in the progression of AD (Alzheimer''s disease), resulting in memory deficits arising from neuronal and synaptic alterations as well as glial malfunction. In this paper, we have performed an in-depth analysis of astroglial morphology in the EC by measuring the surface and volume of the GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein) profiles in a triple transgenic mouse model of AD [3xTg-AD (triple transgenic mice of AD)]. We found significant reduction in both the surface and volume of GFAP-labelled profiles in 3xTg-AD animals from very early ages (1 month) when compared with non-Tg (non-transgenic) controls (48 and 54%, reduction respectively), which was sustained for up to 12 months (33 and 45% reduction respectively). The appearance of Aβ (amyloid β-peptide) depositions at 12 months of age did not trigger astroglial hypertrophy; nor did it result in the close association of astrocytes with senile plaques. Our results suggest that the AD progressive cognitive deterioration can be associated with an early reduction of astrocytic arborization and shrinkage of the astroglial domain, which may affect synaptic connectivity within the EC and between the EC and other brain regions. In addition, the EC seems to be particularly vulnerable to AD pathology because of the absence of evident astrogliosis in response to Aβ accumulation. Thus we can consider that targeting astroglial atrophy may represent a therapeutic strategy which might slow down the progression of AD.     

Bioenergetic Mechanisms in Astrocytes May Contribute to Amyloid Plaque Deposition and Toxicity

Alzheimer disease (AD) is characterized neuropathologically by synaptic disruption, neuronal loss, and deposition of amyloid β (Aβ) protein in brain structures that are critical for memory and cognition. There is increasing appreciation, however, that astrocytes, which are the major non-neuronal glial cells, may play an important role in AD pathogenesis. Unlike neurons, astrocytes are resistant to Aβ cytotoxicity, which may, in part, be related to their greater reliance on glycolytic metabolism. Here we show that, in cultures of human fetal astrocytes, pharmacological inhibition or molecular down-regulation of a main enzymatic regulator of glycolysis, 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-biphosphatase (PFKFB3), results in increased accumulation of Aβ within and around astrocytes and greater vulnerability of these cells to Aβ toxicity. We further investigated age-dependent changes in PFKFB3 and astrocytes in AD transgenic mice (TgCRND8) that overexpress human Aβ. Using a combination of Western blotting and immunohistochemistry, we identified an increase in glial fibrillary acidic protein expression in astrocytes that paralleled the escalation of the Aβ plaque burden in TgCRND8 mice in an age-dependent manner. Furthermore, PFKFB3 expression also demonstrated an increase in these mice, although at a later age (9 months) than GFAP and Aβ. Immunohistochemical staining showed significant reactive astrogliosis surrounding Aβ plaques with increased PFKFB3 activity in 12-month-old TgCRND8 mice, an age when AD pathology and behavioral deficits are fully manifested. These studies shed light on the unique bioenergetic mechanisms within astrocytes that may contribute to the development of AD pathology.     

Brain Gene Expression of a Sporadic (icv-STZ Mouse) and a Familial Mouse Model (3xTg-AD Mouse) of Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) can be divided into sporadic AD (SAD) and familial AD (FAD). Most AD cases are sporadic and may result from multiple etiologic factors, including environmental, genetic and metabolic factors, whereas FAD is caused by mutations of presenilins or amyloid-β (Aβ) precursor protein (APP). A commonly used mouse model for AD is 3xTg-AD mouse, which is generated by over-expression of mutated presenilin 1, APP and tau in the brain and thus represents a mouse model of FAD. A mouse model generated by intracerebroventricular (icv) administration of streptozocin (STZ), icv-STZ mouse, shows many aspects of SAD. Despite the wide use of these two models for AD research, differences in gene expression between them are not known. Here, we compared the expression of 84 AD-related genes in the hippocampus and the cerebral cortex between icv-STZ mice and 3xTg-AD mice using a custom-designed qPCR array. These genes are involved in APP processing, tau/cytoskeleton, synapse function, apoptosis and autophagy, AD-related protein kinases, glucose metabolism, insulin signaling, and mTOR pathway. We found altered expression of around 20 genes in both mouse models, which affected each of above categories. Many of these gene alterations were consistent with what was observed in AD brain previously. The expression of most of these altered genes was decreased or tended to be decreased in the hippocampus of both mouse models. Significant diversity in gene expression was found in the cerebral cortex between these two AD mouse models. More genes related to synaptic function were dysregulated in the 3xTg-AD mice, whereas more genes related to insulin signaling and glucose metabolism were down-regulated in the icv-STZ mice. The present study provides important fundamental knowledge of these two AD mouse models and will help guide future studies using these two mouse models for the development of AD drugs.     

Reduced Membrane Lipids in the Cortex of Alzheimer’s Disease Transgenic Mice

Accumulating evidence suggests that the conversion of Aβ peptides to soluble, neurotoxic polymers is the key event in the development of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Moreover, interactions between Aβ peptides and neuronal membrane lipids likely play a vital role in developing the neurotoxicity associated with AD. The aim of this study is to assess whether lipid matrix of neuronal membranes is affected by the accumulation of Aβ peptides in double transgenic mouse model of AD expressing both mutant human β-amyloid precursor protein (APP) and presenilin 1 (PS1). We apply high pressure liquid chromatography with an evaporative light scattering detector to compare levels of cholesterol, galactocerebrosides, and phospholipid subclasses simultaneously in cortex samples between AD double transgenic mice at 4 months of age when Aβ production and amyloid plaque deposition is just beginning and at 9 months, when there is advanced Aβ levels and plaque deposition compared to age-matched wild-type (B6/SJL) mice. Both cholesterol (CL) and phospholipids (PL) are significantly lower in 9-month-old AD mice than the same age of B6/SJL mice. Among PL subclasses, phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylserine (PS) and phosphatidylcholine (PC) are selectively reduced in 9-month-old AD mice. The molar ratios of CL to PL in 9-month-old AD mice (1.19 ± 0.27) were significantly higher than those of 9-month-old B6/SJL mice (0.81 ± 0.08). In keeping with decreased levels of PL, there are also significant reductions of very long-chain n-3 fatty acids (docosahexaenoic acid) and n-6 fatty acid (arachidonic acid) in 9-month-old AD mice. On the other hand, ratios of total n-6 to total n-3 fatty acids were significantly higher in 9-month-old AD mice than in the same age of B6/SJL mice. Taken together, our present data support a role for the interactions of amyloid-β peptide and neuronal membranes in the subsequent development of AD. Special issue article in honor of Dr. George DeVries.     

APP Intracellular Domain Impairs Adult Neurogenesis in Transgenic Mice by Inducing Neuroinflammation

Background

A devastating aspect of Alzheimer''s disease (AD) is the progressive deterioration of memory due to neuronal loss. Amyloid precursor protein (APP) occupies a central position in AD and APP-derived amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides are thought to play a pivotal role in disease pathogenesis. Nonetheless, it is becoming clear that AD etiology is highly complex and that factors other than Aβ also contribute to AD pathogenesis. APP intracellular domain (AICD) is generated together with Aβ and we recently showed that AICD transgenic mice recapitulate pathological features of AD such as tau hyperphosphorylation, memory deficits and neurodegeneration without increasing the Aβ levels. Since impaired adult neurogenesis is shown to augment memory deficits in AD mouse models, here we examined the status of adult neurogenesis in AICD transgenic mice.

Methodology/Principal Finding

We previously generated transgenic mice co-expressing 59-residue long AICD fragment and its binding partner Fe65. Hippocampal progenitor cell proliferation was determined by BrdU incorporation at 1.5, 3 and 12 months of age. Only male transgenic and their respective wilt type littermate control mice were used. We find age-dependent decrease in BrdU incorporation and doublecortin-positive cells in the dentate gyrus of AICD transgenic mice suggesting impaired adult neurogenesis. This deficit resulted from decreased proliferation and survival, whereas neuronal differentiation remained unaffected. Importantly, this impairment was independent of Aβ since APP-KO mice expressing AICD also exhibit reduced neurogenesis. The defects in adult neurogenesis are prevented by long-term treatment with the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents ibuprofen or naproxen suggesting that neuroinflammation is critically involved in impaired adult neurogenesis in AICD transgenic mice.

Conclusion/Significance

Since adult neurogenesis is crucial for spatial memory, which is particularly vulnerable in AD, these findings suggest that AICD can exacerbate memory defects in AD by impairing adult neurogenesis. Our findings further establish that AICD, in addition to Aβ, contributes to AD pathology and that neuroinflammation plays a much broader role in AD pathogenesis than previously thought.     

Autophagy in microglia degrades extracellular β-amyloid fibrils and regulates the NLRP3 inflammasome

Accumulation of β-amyloid (Aβ) and resultant inflammation are critical pathological features of Alzheimer disease (AD). Microglia, a primary immune cell in brain, ingests and degrades extracellular Aβ fibrils via the lysosomal system. Autophagy is a catabolic process that degrades native cellular components, however, the role of autophagy in Aβ degradation by microglia and its effects on AD are unknown. Here we demonstrate a novel role for autophagy in the clearance of extracellular Aβ fibrils by microglia and in the regulation of the Aβ-induced NLRP3 (NLR family, pyrin domain containing 3) inflammasome using microglia specific atg7 knockout mice and cell cultures. We found in microglial cultures that Aβ interacts with MAP1LC3B-II via OPTN/optineurin and is degraded by an autophagic process mediated by the PRKAA1 pathway. We anticipate that enhancing microglial autophagy may be a promising new therapeutic strategy for AD.     

Nonhuman Amyloid Oligomer Epitope Reduces Alzheimer’s-Like Neuropathology in 3xTg-AD Transgenic Mice

Accumulation of beta-amyloid (Aβ) is an important pathological event in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). It is now well known that vaccination against fibrillar Aβ prevents amyloid accumulation and preserves cognitive function in transgenic mouse models. To study the effect of vaccination against generic oligomer epitopes, Aβ oligomers, islet amyloid polypeptide oligomers, random peptide oligomer (3A), and Aβ fibrils were used to vaccinate 3xTg-AD, which develop a progressive accumulation of plaques and cognitive impairment. Subcutaneous administration of these antigens markedly reduced total plaque load (Aβ burden) and improved cognitive function in the 3xTg-AD mouse brains as compared to controls. We demonstrated that vaccination with this nonhuman amyloid oligomer generated high titers of specifically antibodies recognizing Aβ oligomers, which in turn inhibited accumulation of Aβ pathology in mice. In addition to amyloid plaques, another hallmark of AD is tau pathology. It was found that there was a significant decline in the level of hyper-phosphorylated tau following vaccination. We have previously shown that immunization with 3A peptide improves cognitive function and clears amyloid plaques in Tg2576 mice, which provides a novel strategy of AD therapy. Here, we have shown that vaccination with 3A peptide in 3xTg-AD mice not only clears amyloid plaques but also extensively clears abnormal tau in brain.     

The Proton-Pump Inhibitor Lansoprazole Enhances Amyloid Beta Production

A key event in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) species in the brain, derived from the sequential cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by β- and γ-secretases. Based on a systems biology study to repurpose drugs for AD, we explore the effect of lansoprazole, and other proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs), on Aβ production in AD cellular and animal models. We found that lansoprazole enhances Aβ37, Aβ40 and Aβ42 production and lowers Aβ38 levels on amyloid cell models. Interestingly, acute lansoprazole treatment in wild type and AD transgenic mice promoted higher Aβ40 levels in brain, indicating that lansoprazole may also exacerbate Aβ production in vivo. Overall, our data presents for the first time that PPIs can affect amyloid metabolism, both in vitro and in vivo.     

Beneficial effects of white wine polyphenols-enriched diet on Alzheimer’s disease-like pathology

The development of effective medicines to break or delay the progressive brain degeneration underlying cognitive decline and dementia that characterize Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is one of the greatest challenges of our time. In the present work, a selective pool of polyphenols, obtained from the white wine by adsorption to polyvinylpyrrolidone polymer (PVPP), was used to prepare a polyphenols-enriched diet, supplementing the drinking water with 100 mg/L (expressed as gallic acid equivalent) of wine polyphenolic extract. The impact of the daily consumption of water supplemented with polyphenols for 2 months on brain of 10-month-old 3xTg-AD and NonTg mice was evaluated, considering effects on the redox state of cells, levels of amyloid-β peptides, mitochondrial bioenergetics and fatty acid profile of whole membrane phospholipids. The polyphenols-enriched diet promotes brain accumulation of catechin and hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives, and modulates the redox state of 3xTg-AD brain cells, increasing both glutathione/glutathione disulfide ratio and catalase activity and decreasing membrane lipids oxidation. Additionally, the functional diet decreases the 3xTg-AD brain levels of both amyloid-β peptides, Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42. However, the brain mitochondrial bioenergetic dysfunction of 3xTg-AD animals was not attenuated by the polyphenols-enriched diet. Lipidomic studies showed that this functional diet modulates membrane lipid composition of brain cells, increasing C22:6n-3 (docosahexanoic acid) and decreasing C20:4n-6 (arachidonic acid) levels, which may have beneficial impact on the chronic inflammatory process associated with AD pathology. Altogether, these results indicate that the oral administration of this polyphenols-enriched diet promotes significant benefits in multiple aspects of the pathophysiological cascade associated with the neuropathology developed by 3xTg-AD mice.     

Ganglioside-Dependent Neural Stem Cell Proliferation in Alzheimer’s Disease Model Mice

The aggregation and formation of amyloid plaques by amyloid β-peptides (Aβs) is believed to be one of the pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Intriguingly, Aβs have also been shown to possess proliferative effects on neural stem cells (NSCs). Many essential cellular processes in NSCs, such as fate determination and proliferation, are heavily influenced by cell surface glycoconjugates, including gangliosides. It has recently been shown that Aβ1-42 alters several key glycosyltransferases and glycosidases. To further define the effects of Aβs and to clarify the potential mechanisms of action of those peptides on NSCs, NSCs were cultured from embryonic brains of the double-transgenic mouse model of AD [B6C3-Tg(APPswe,PSEN1dE9)85Dbo/J] coexpressing mutants of amyloid precursor protein (APPswe) and presenilin1 (PSEN1dE9). We found that Aβs not only promoted cell proliferation but also altered expression of several key glycogenes for glycoconjugate metabolism, such as sialyltransferases II and III (ST-II & -III) in AD NSCs. In addition, we found upregulation of epidermal growth factor receptor and Notch1 intracellular domain. Moreover, the increased expression of ST-II and -III coincided with the elevated levels of c-series gangliosides (A2B5+ antigens) in AD NSCs. Further, we revealed that epidermal growth factor signaling and gangliosides are necessary components on Aβ-stimulated NSC proliferation. Our present study has thus provided a novel mechanism for the upregulation of c-series ganglioside expression and increases in several NSC markers to account for the proliferative effect of Aβs on NSCs in AD mouse brain. These observations support the potential beneficial effects of Aβs and gangliosides in promoting neurogenesis in AD brain.