Phenoloxidase Activity Acts as a Mosquito Innate Immune Response against Infection with Semliki Forest Virus

Several components of the mosquito immune system including the RNA interference (RNAi), JAK/STAT, Toll and IMD pathways have previously been implicated in controlling arbovirus infections. In contrast, the role of the phenoloxidase (PO) cascade in mosquito antiviral immunity is unknown. Here we show that conditioned medium from the Aedes albopictus-derived U4.4 cell line contains a functional PO cascade, which is activated by the bacterium Escherichia coli and the arbovirus Semliki Forest virus (SFV) (Togaviridae; Alphavirus). Production of recombinant SFV expressing the PO cascade inhibitor Egf1.0 blocked PO activity in U4.4 cell- conditioned medium, which resulted in enhanced spread of SFV. Infection of adult female Aedes aegypti by feeding mosquitoes a bloodmeal containing Egf1.0-expressing SFV increased virus replication and mosquito mortality. Collectively, these results suggest the PO cascade of mosquitoes plays an important role in immune defence against arboviruses.     

干扰素刺激基因表达对Peg-IFN抗乙型肝炎病毒免疫应答的影响

为了揭示干扰素刺激基因(interferon-stimulated gene, ISG)表达的改变对乙型肝炎病毒感染治疗效果的影响,本研究检测了干扰素刺激基因STAT1、MX和SOCS3在慢性乙型肝炎患者的外周血单核细胞(peripheral blood mononuclear cell, PBMC)和肝脏样品中的表达情况。结果显示,采用聚乙二醇干扰素(Peg-IFN)治疗后,Peg-IFN应答者的PBMC和肝组织中的STAT1和MX表达水平显著升高,而非应答者的SOCS3表达显著升高。在应答者的活组织检查中,Peg-IFN治疗24 h后细胞核中磷酸化STAT1的染色比例显著增加,而非应答者在治疗前肝细胞核染色比例较高,治疗后染色比例显著减少。此外,治疗前非应答者的肝SOCS3表达水平显著高于应答者,并且随着IFN的治疗SOCS3表达继续增加。本研究表明,STAT1和MX是Peg-IFN抗病毒免疫应答的正向调节因子,而SOCS3 (JAK/STAT途径的负调节因子)激活干扰素刺激基因的负调控,并抑制Peg-IFN的免疫应答。     

Viral Cell Death Inhibitor MC159 Enhances Innate Immunity against Vaccinia Virus Infection

Viral inhibitors of host programmed cell death (PCD) are widely believed to promote viral replication by preventing or delaying host cell death. Viral FLIPs (Fas-linked ICE-like protease [FLICE; caspase-8]-like inhibitor proteins) are potent inhibitors of death receptor-induced apoptosis and programmed necrosis. Surprisingly, transgenic expression of the viral FLIP MC159 from molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV) in mice enhanced rather than inhibited the innate immune control of vaccinia virus (VV) replication. This effect of MC159 was specifically manifested in peripheral tissues such as the visceral fat pad, but not in the spleen. VV-infected MC159 transgenic mice mounted an enhanced innate inflammatory reaction characterized by increased expression of the chemokine CCL-2/MCP-1 and infiltration of γδ T cells into peripheral tissues. Radiation chimeras revealed that MC159 expression in the parenchyma, but not in the hematopoietic compartment, is responsible for the enhanced innate inflammatory responses. The increased inflammation in peripheral tissues was not due to resistance of lymphocytes to cell death. Rather, we found that MC159 facilitated Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)- and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-induced NF-κB activation. The increased NF-κB responses were mediated in part through increased binding of RIP1 to TNFRSF1A-associated via death domain (TRADD), two crucial signal adaptors for NF-κB activation. These results show that MC159 is a dual-function immune modulator that regulates host cell death as well as NF-κB responses by innate immune signaling receptors.Successful immunity against pathogenic challenges is central to the survival of all organisms. Metazoans employ a wide array of innate and adaptive immune responses to control various pathogens. In response, pathogens have developed various strategies to evade detection and elimination by the immune system. Programmed cell death (PCD) plays an important role in host defense against pathogens by directly eliminating infected cells to limit the viral factory. A role for host cell death in antiviral responses is highlighted by the identification of viral inhibitors of apoptosis (3). In addition to apoptosis, nonapoptotic PCD pathways, such as necrosis and autophagy have recently been shown to participate in host defense against pathogens (31, 44). For instance, we recently showed that genetic ablation of an essential necrosis mediator, RIP3, resulted in severely impaired innate immune responses against vaccinia virus (VV) infection characterized by the lack of virus-induced tissue necrosis and inflammation (11). In addition, certain vFLIPs (viral Fas-linked ICE-like protease [FLICE; caspase-8]-like inhibitor proteins) are potent inhibitors of programmed necrosis (6, 8). These results indicate that host PCD machineries play important roles in controlling the viral factory and dissemination of the virus within the infected host.Despite the widely accepted view that inhibition of host cell death is an important viral immune evasion strategy, relatively few in vivo studies have been performed to directly test this hypothesis. This is due partly to the lack of suitable animal models in which specific components of host apoptotic machinery are inhibited. For instance, germ line inactivation of many of the components of the PCD machinery, such as Fas-associated via death domain (FADD) and caspase-8, resulted in embryonic lethality (50, 55, 57), thus preventing in vivo virus infection studies from using these animal models. Another approach that was widely used was transgenic expression of viral apoptosis inhibitors, such as poxvirus CrmA, baculovirus p35, and vFLIPs. However, since expression of these inhibitors was restricted mostly to the lymphoid compartment (26, 28, 34, 46, 51, 54, 58), they do not permit evaluation of the role of host cell death in the parenchyma in antiviral responses. Cell death in the stromal compartment could impact the innate inflammatory reaction, cross-priming of antigens, and viral dissemination to other tissues. Because cells in the parenchyma are the primary targets for many virus infections, it is important to determine the contribution of cell death in the parenchyma in antiviral responses.The vFLIPs were first identified as inhibitors of caspase-dependent apoptosis. They share homology with caspase-8 and caspase-10 in the tandem death effector domains (DEDs) at the amino termini. However, vFLIPs lack the caspase enzyme domain at the carboxyl termini. Thus, binding of vFLIPs to FADD and caspase-8/-10 via DED-mediated homotypic interaction led to inhibition of FasL-, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-, and TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)-induced apoptosis (18, 19). Importantly, certain vFLIPs, including MC159 and E8, are also potent inhibitors of programmed necrosis induced by TNF-like death cytokines (8). These results suggest that viral inhibitors could inhibit multiple host PCD pathways to avoid elimination by the host immune system.In order to determine the effect of vFLIPs on host responses against viral infections, we generated transgenic mice expressing vFLIP MC159 under the control of the ubiquitous H2-K^b promoter (53). We previously showed that transgenic expression of MC159 did not alter lymphocyte functions and development, but rather caused a mild form of lymphoproliferation that resembled that seen with the lpr mice with Fas/CD95/Apo-1 mutations (53). Here, we show that MC159 transgenic mice exhibited enhanced innate immune responses to VV infections, which led to enhanced viral clearance in peripheral tissues. Surprisingly, the enhanced control of VV production was not due to enhanced lymphocyte survival. Rather, VV-induced expression of the chemokine CCL-2/MCP-1 was highly elevated in MC159 transgenic mice and was accompanied by enhanced recruitment of γδ T cells to peripheral tissues. MC159 promotes the binding between TRADD and RIP1, two crucial signal adaptors for NF-κB activation. Consequently, MC159 transgenic fibroblasts exhibited enhanced NF-κB activation to TNF and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) stimulation. These results reveal a previously unappreciated effect of MC159 on NF-κB activation and indicate that viral cell death inhibitors could impact innate immune responses through mechanisms beyond cell death regulation.     

Asia1型口蹄疫病毒分离株结构蛋白基因的克隆与表达

口蹄疫病毒结构蛋白氨基酸的变化是病毒抗原性变异的分子基础,大部分抗原表位位于主要的免疫原蛋白VP1上,部分非线性抗原表位位于VP2和VP3上.本研究首次成功测定了Asia1型口蹄疫病毒(YNBS/58)四种结构蛋白基因(p1区)的核苷酸序列,全长2199个碱基,编码733个氨基酸,该基因与Ind63/72、Pka3/54、Israel、China/99、C1/Germany、A22、ZIM7/83/2毒株的p1基因核苷酸序列同源性分别为88.4%、86.0%、89.3%、68.6%、67.6%、66.8%、50.3%,推导的氨基酸序列同源性分别为94.1%、93.2%、95.1%、79.9%、77.0%、76.5%、58.1%;将YNBS/58株与Ind63/72、Pka3/54、Israel株的vp1、vp2、vp3、vp4基因和编码蛋白分别进行同源性比较,发现VP1的序列变异最大,VP2、VP3、VP4次之,且VP1的氨基酸变异主要集中在42-50位和137-156位.实现了YNBS/58株结构蛋白基因在大肠杆菌中的高效表达,其表达的融合蛋白以包涵体形式存在,分子量约为88kDa,占菌体总蛋白的16%左右,并利用镍柱对目的蛋白进行了纯化,纯度达90%以上,本实验为进一步研究A-sia1型口蹄疫病毒的分子流行病学、p1基因及其编码蛋白的生物学功能奠定了基础.     

Asia1型口蹄疫病毒分离株结构蛋白基因的克隆与表达

口蹄疫病毒结构蛋白氨基酸的变化是病毒抗原性变异的分子基础,大部分抗原表位位于主要的免疫原蛋白VP1上,部分非线性抗原表位位于VP2和VP3上。本研究首次成功测定了 Asia1 型口蹄疫病毒(YNBS/58)四种结构蛋白基因( p1 区)的核苷酸序列,全长 2199 个碱基,编码 733 个氨基酸,该基因与 Ind63/72、Pka3/54、Israel、China/99、C1/Germany、A22、ZIM7/83/2 毒株的 p1 基因核苷酸序列同源性分别为 88. 4%、86. 0%、89. 3%、68.6%、67.6%、66.8%、50.3%,推导的氨基酸序列同源性分别为 94.1%、93.2%、95.1%、79.9%、77.0%、76.5%、58.1%;将YNBS/58株与 Ind63/72、Pka3/54、Israel株的 vp1、vp2、vp3、vp4 基因和编码蛋白分别进行同源性比较,发现VP1的序列变异最大,VP2、VP3、VP4次之,且VP1的氨基酸变异主要集中在 42-50 位和 137-156 位。实现了YNBS/58株结构蛋白基因在大肠杆菌中的高效表达,其表达的融合蛋白以包涵体形式存在,分子量约为88kDa,占菌体总蛋白的16%左右,并利用镍柱对目的蛋白进行了纯化,纯度达 90%以上,本实验为进一步研究 A sia1型口蹄疫病毒的分子流行病学、p1基因及其编码蛋白的生物学功能奠定了基础。     

Protective Immune Response to Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus with VP1 Expressed in Transgenic Plants

It has been reported recently that genes encoding antigens of bacterial and viral pathogens can be expressed in plants in a form in which they retain native immunogenic properties. The structural protein VP1 of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), which has frequently been shown to contain critical epitopes, has been expressed in different vectors and shown to induce virus-neutralizing antibodies and protection in experimental and natural hosts. Here we report the production of transformed plants (Arabidopsis thaliana) expressing VP1. Mice immunized with leaf plant extracts elicited specific antibody responses to synthetic peptides representing amino acid residues 135 to 160 of VP1, to VP1 itself, and to intact FMDV particles. Additionally, all of the immunized mice were protected against challenge with virulent FMDV. To our knowledge, this is the first study showing protection against a viral disease by immunization with an antigen expressed in a transgenic plant.     

FMDV vp1基因在烟草中表达及转基因烟草的免疫效果

通过三亲杂交法,构建克隆有阿克苏(Akesu/58)O型口蹄疫病毒vp1基因的双元表达载体pBin FMDV VP1.采用农杆菌介导法转化NC89烟草叶盘,经卡那霉素筛选,共获得49株抗性植株.对抗性植株总DNA进行目的基因的PCR检测,有40株阳性植株.对阳性植株总RNA进行目的基因的RT-PCR检测,有21株阳性植株.将7株ELISA和Western-blot检测阳性植株叶片提取物分别与弗氏佐剂乳化,在0、15、30和45d腹膜腔接种Balb/C小白鼠,于第4次免疫后第9d进行血清抗体检测;第12d用10 4SM\-\{50\}LD的同源强毒进行攻击;攻毒后24h采血,通过乳鼠病毒血症试验判定攻击Balb/C小白鼠的发病和保护情况.结果表明双元表达载体pBin FMDV VP1构建正确;vp1基因转入NC89烟草并获得表达;7组中有2组Balb/C小白鼠血清抗体呈阳性,攻毒保护率分别为100%和63%.证明2株转基因烟草表达的VP1蛋白具有较好的免疫原性,所免疫的2组Balb/C小白鼠对同源强毒攻击有一定的抵抗能力.     

FMDV vp1基因在烟草中表达及转基因烟草的免疫效果

通过三亲杂交法,构建克隆有阿克苏(Akesu/58) O 型口蹄疫病毒vp1 基因的双元表达载体pBin FMDVVP1。采用农杆菌介导法转化NC89烟草叶盘,经卡那霉素筛选,共获得49株抗性植株。对抗性植株总DNA进行目的基因的PCR检测,有40株阳性植株。对阳性植株总RNA进行目的基因的RT PCR检测,有21株阳性植株。将7株ELISA和Western blot检测阳性植株叶片提取物分别与弗氏佐剂乳化,在0、15、30 和45d 腹膜腔接种Balb/C小白鼠,于第4次免疫后第9d进行血清抗体检测;第12d用104SM50 LD的同源强毒进行攻击;攻毒后24h采血,通过乳鼠病毒血症试验判定攻击Balb/C小白鼠的发病和保护情况。结果表明:双元表达载体pBin FMDVVP1构建正确;vp1基因转入NC89烟草并获得表达;7组中有2组Balb/C小白鼠血清抗体呈阳性,攻毒保护率分别为100%和63%。证明2株转基因烟草表达的VP1蛋白具有较好的免疫原性,所免疫的2 组Balb/C小白鼠对同源强毒攻击有一定的抵抗能力。     

FMDV VP1基因与HSP70基因在毕赤酵母中的融合表达及免疫特性

利用毕赤酵母系统对O型口蹄疫病毒VP1基因与结核杆菌HSP70基因进行融合表达,并检测此融合蛋白对小鼠细胞免疫和体液免疫的影响。将人工合成的O型口蹄疫病毒VP1基因与结核杆菌HSP70基因克隆入酵母表达载体pPICZαA中,以电穿孔法转化酵母菌X-33,用Zeocin YPDS平板筛选重组子,经甲醇诱导表达后,SDS-PAGE和免疫印迹分析表达产物。以皮下接种的方式给小鼠进行3次免疫,同时设两组对照,分别免疫PBS和常规灭活疫苗,然后通过MTT法和ELISA分别检测淋巴细胞的增殖情况和抗体水平。结果表明融合蛋白既能诱导细胞免疫应答又能诱导体液免疫应答,其诱导产生的抗体水平略低于常规灭活疫苗,而细胞免疫水平则高于后者。     

CXCL17 Expression Predicts Poor Prognosis and Correlates with Adverse Immune Infiltration in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

CXC ligand 17 (CXCL17) is a novel CXC chemokine whose clinical significance remains largely unknown. In the present study, we characterized the prognostic value of CXCL17 in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and evaluated the association of CXCL17 with immune infiltration. We examined CXCL17 expression in 227 HCC tissue specimens by immunohistochemical staining, and correlated CXCL17 expression patterns with clinicopathological features, prognosis, and immune infiltrate density (CD4 T cells, CD8 T cells, B cells, natural killer cells, neutrophils, macrophages). Kaplan-Meier survival analysis showed that both increased intratumoral CXCL17 (P = 0.015 for overall survival [OS], P = 0.003 for recurrence-free survival [RFS]) and peritumoral CXCL17 (P = 0.002 for OS, P<0.001 for RFS) were associated with shorter OS and RFS. Patients in the CXCL17^low group had significantly lower 5-year recurrence rate compared with patients in the CXCL17^high group (peritumoral: 53.1% vs. 77.7%, P<0.001, intratumoral: 58.6% vs. 73.0%, P = 0.001, respectively). Multivariate Cox proportional hazards analysis identified peritumoral CXCL17 as an independent prognostic factor for both OS (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.066, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.296–3.292, P = 0.002) and RFS (HR = 1.844, 95% CI = 1.218–2.793, P = 0.004). Moreover, CXCL17 expression was associated with more CD68 and less CD4 cell infiltration (both P<0.05). The combination of CXCL17 density and immune infiltration could be used to further classify patients into subsets with different prognosis for RFS. Our results provide the first evidence that tumor-infiltrating CXCL17⁺ cell density is an independent prognostic factor that predicts both OS and RFS in HCC. CXCL17 production correlated with adverse immune infiltration and might be an important target for anti-HCC therapies.     

Transient Gene Expression in Serum-Free Suspension-Growing Mammalian Cells for the Production of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Empty Capsids

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals. It produces severe economic losses in the livestock industry. Currently available vaccines are based on inactivated FMD virus (FMDV). The use of empty capsids as a subunit vaccine has been reported to be a promising candidate because it avoids the use of virus in the vaccine production and conserves the conformational epitopes of the virus. In this report, we explored transient gene expression (TGE) in serum-free suspension-growing mammalian cells for the production of FMDV recombinant empty capsids as a subunit vaccine. The recombinant proteins produced, assembled into empty capsids and induced protective immune response against viral challenge in mice. Furthermore, they were recognized by anti-FMDV bovine sera. By using this technology, we were able to achieve expression levels that are compatible with the development of a vaccine. Thus, TGE of mammalian cells is an easy to perform, scalable and cost-effective technology for the production of a recombinant subunit vaccine against FMDV.     

Immunosuppression during Acute Infection with Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus in Swine Is Mediated by IL-10

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is one of the most contagious animal viruses, causing a devastating disease in cloven-hoofed animals with enormous economic consequences. Identification of the different parameters involved in the immune response elicited against FMDV remains unclear, and it is fundamental the understanding of such parameters before effective control measures can be put in place. In the present study, we show that interleukin-10 (IL-10) production by dendritic cells (DCs) is drastically increased during acute infection with FMDV in swine. In vitro blockade of IL-10 with a neutralizing antibody against porcine IL-10 restores T cell activation by DCs. Additionally, we describe that FMDV infects DC precursors and interferes with DC maturation and antigen presentation capacity. Thus, we propose a new mechanism of virus immunity in which a non-persistent virus, FMDV, induces immunosuppression by an increment in the production of IL-10, which in turn, reduces T cell function. This reduction of T cell activity may result in a more potent induction of neutralizing antibody responses, clearing the viral infection.     

Protection against Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus in Guinea Pigs via Oral Administration of Recombinant Lactobacillus plantarum Expressing VP1

Mucosal vaccination is an effective strategy for generating antigen-specific immune responses against mucosal infections of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). In this study, Lactobacillus plantarum strains NC8 and WCFS1 were used as oral delivery vehicles containing a pSIP411-VP1 recombinant plasmid to initiate mucosal and systemic immune responses in guinea pigs. Guinea pigs were orally vaccinated (three doses) with NC8-pSIP411, NC8-pSIP411-VP1, WCFS1-pSIP411, WCFS1-pSIP411-VP1 or milk. Animals immunized with NC8-pSIP411-VP1 and WCFS1-pSIP411-VP1 developed high levels of antigen-specific serum IgG, IgA, IgM, mucosal secretory IgA (sIgA) and neutralizing antibodies, and revealed stronger cell-mediated immune responses and enhanced protection against FMDV challenge compared with control groups. The recombinant pSIP411-VP1 effectively improved immunoprotection against FMDV in guinea pigs.     

Interferon-Induced ISG15 Conjugation Inhibits Influenza A Virus Gene Expression and Replication in Human Cells

The ubiquitin-like ISG15 protein, as well as its conjugating enzymes, is induced by type I interferons (IFNs). Experiments using ISG15 knockout (ISG15^−/−) mice established that ISG15 and/or its conjugation inhibits the replication of influenza A virus. However, in contrast to the virus inhibition results for mice, the rates of virus replication in ISG15^+/+ and ISG15^−/− mouse embryo fibroblasts in tissue culture were similar. Here we focus on human tissue culture cells and on the effect of ISG15 and/or its conjugation on influenza A virus gene expression and replication in such cells. We demonstrate that IFN-induced antiviral activity against influenza A virus in human cells is significantly alleviated by inhibiting ISG15 conjugation using small interfering RNAs directed against ISG15-conjugating enzymes. IFN-induced antiviral activity against influenza A virus protein synthesis was reduced 5- to 20-fold by suppressing ISG15 conjugation. The amounts of the viral proteins that were restored by these siRNA treatments were approximately 40 to 50% of the amounts produced in cells that were not pretreated with IFN. Further, we show that ISG15 conjugation inhibits influenza A virus replication 10- to 20-fold at early times after infection in human cells. These results show that ISG15 conjugation plays a substantial role in the antiviral state induced by IFN in human cells. In contrast, we show that in mouse embryo fibroblasts ISG15 conjugation not only does not affect influenza A virus replication but also does not contribute to the IFN-induced antiviral activity against influenza A virus gene expression.Virus infection activates the synthesis of type I interferons (IFN-α and IFN-β), which induce the synthesis of a large array of proteins, many of which play crucial roles in the antiviral response (1). One of the most strongly induced proteins is ISG15, a 15-kDa ubiquitin-like protein that becomes conjugated to many cellular proteins (6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 22, 26, 30). Three of the human enzymes that catalyze this conjugation, the UbE1L E1 enzyme, the UbcH8 E2 enzyme, and the Herc5 E3 enzyme, are also induced by IFN-β (4, 10, 26, 27, 29). Although it had been reported that UbcH8 functions in both ISG15 and ubiquitin conjugation (3, 10, 13, 25, 28, 29), a recent study demonstrated that UbcH8 is unlikely to function in ubiquitin conjugation in vivo for two reasons: K_m measurements revealed that the E1 ubiquitin-activating enzyme, unlike UbE1L, exhibits very low affinity for UbcH8, and UbcH8 is poorly, if not at all, expressed in the absence of IFN treatment, indicating that UbcH8 functions only during the IFN response (5). A large number of human proteins that are targets for ISG15 conjugation have been identified (22, 26, 30). Most of these targets are constitutively expressed proteins that function in diverse cellular pathways, but several of the targets are IFN-α/-β-induced antiviral proteins.Because the NS1 protein of influenza B virus (NS1B) was shown to bind ISG15 and inhibit its conjugation to target proteins, it was proposed that ISG15 and/or its conjugation is inhibitory to the replication of influenza B virus (27). Subsequently, experiments using ISG15 knockout (ISG15^−/−) mice established that ISG15 and/or its conjugation inhibits the replication of not only influenza B virus but also influenza A virus (16). For example, at one of the inoculum levels employed for influenza A virus, 52% of the ISG15^−/− mice died, whereas a significantly smaller percentage, 23%, of the ISG15^+/+ mice died. However, the effect of ISG15 and/or its conjugation on influenza A virus replication was not detected in mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEFs) in tissue culture. MEFs supported only very limited replication of influenza A virus, and there was no significant difference in virus replication between ISG15^+/+ and ISG15^−/− MEFs (16). These investigators postulated that influenza A virus replication was probably selectively spared in other cell types of the ISG15^−/− mouse. A subsequent study showed that ISG15 conjugation exerts its antiviral action against influenza B virus (and presumably against influenza A virus) in radioresistant stromal cells of the mouse (14). However, an antiviral effect of ISG15 conjugation against influenza A virus has not yet been demonstrated in mouse cells in tissue culture.In the present study we focus on human tissue culture cells and on the effect of ISG15 and/or its conjugation on the replication of influenza A virus in such cells. We show that IFN-induced antiviral activity against influenza A virus in human cells is significantly alleviated by inhibiting ISG15 conjugation using small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) against ISG15-conjugating enzymes. Our results show that both the synthesis of viral proteins and the early rate of virus replication are inhibited by ISG15 conjugation. In contrast, we show that in MEFs ISG15 conjugation not only does not affect influenza A virus replication but also does not contribute to IFN-induced antiviral activity against influenza A virus gene expression.