Some Xylaria species on termite nests

Xylaria arenicola, X. brasiliensis, X. escharoidea, X. furcata, X. nigripes, X. piperiformis and X. rhizomorpha represent ancient names of fungi known to inhabit abandoned termite nests. We attempt to redescribe them and to reduce the confusion among them. Xylaria tanganyikaensis and X. readeri, species that might be associated with termite nests, are described. We describe a new variety, X. furcata var. hirsuta, and discuss an unnamed fungus that probably represents a new species. Photographs and a key are presented to aid the identification of these taxa.     

黑柄炭角菌的研究进展

黑柄炭角菌[Xylaria nigripes(Kl.)Sacc.]是一种生长于白蚁废巢的珍稀药用菌。文中对该菌的生物学特性、化学成分、药理作用等几个方面的研究进展进行了综述,并提出了下一步的研究重点和应用展望。     

Xylaria coprinicola, a new species that antagonizes cultivation of Coprinus comatus in China

The species known in China as the chicken-claw fungus is described as a new species, Xylaria coprinicola. This species is known as an antagonist of cultivation of the edible mushroom Coprinus comatus. Stromata of X. coprinicola are cylindrical, terminate in a sterile apex and arise in fascicles from a relative large submerged base; perithecia are immersed and have conspicuously conical ostiolar openings; ascospores are minute. Phylogenetic analyses based on combined partial sequences of rpb2, β-tub and α-act genes showed that X. coprinicola is closely related to those Xylaria species exclusively associated with termite nests.     

Levels of specificity of Xylaria species associated with fungus-growing termites: a phylogenetic approach

Fungus-growing termites live in obligate mutualistic symbiosis with species of the basidiomycete genus Termitomyces , which are cultivated on a substrate of dead plant material. When the termite colony dies, or when nest material is incubated without termites in the laboratory, fruiting bodies of the ascomycete genus Xylaria appear and rapidly cover the fungus garden. This raises the question whether certain Xylaria species are specialised in occupying termite nests or whether they are just occasional visitors. We tested Xylaria specificity at four levels: (1) fungus-growing termites, (2) termite genera, (3) termite species, and (4) colonies. In South Africa, 108 colonies of eight termite species from three termite genera were sampled for Xylaria . Xylaria was isolated from 69% of the sampled nests and from 57% of the incubated fungus comb samples, confirming high prevalence. Phylogenetic analysis of the ITS region revealed 16 operational taxonomic units of Xylaria , indicating high levels of Xylaria species richness. Not much of this variation was explained by termite genus, species, or colony; thus, at level 2–4 the specificity is low. Analysis of the large subunit rDNA region, showed that all termite-associated Xylaria belong to a single clade, together with only three of the 26 non-termite-associated strains. Termite-associated Xylaria thus show specificity for fungus-growing termites (level 1). We did not find evidence for geographic or temporal structuring in these Xylaria phylogenies. Based on our results, we conclude that termite-associated Xylaria are specific for fungus-growing termites, without having specificity for lower taxonomic levels.     

白蚁巢上生长的子囊菌——黑柄炭角菌的深层培养及其生理研究

黑柄炭角菌Xylaria nigripes(K1.)Sacc.是著名的滋补药用真菌,尤其是菌核部位生长在白蚁废弃的蚁巢中,生态条件特殊,资源稀少,研究和开发该菌具有重要意义。为了提高黑柄炭角菌菌丝体和多糖的产量,以便于组织工业化生产,本文探索了该菌的营养条件,测定其生长过程中菌丝体和多糖形成的动态变化,并研究了酯酶同工酶谱和多糖含量变化的相关性。结果表明:在深层培养时,碳源以葡萄糖、淀粉最佳;花生、黄豆、蛋白胨是适宜菌丝生长的良好氮源;Mg~(2+),Zn~(2+)等是其生长的必需元素;有机酸中仅柠檬酸对其菌丝生长有促进作用,在蚁酸影响下,pH值为4.0时,菌丝生长受抑制。在上述实验基础上,进行了产多糖和菌丝体的适宜培养基筛选试验,在适宜条件下,能培养出密集、白色、均匀的菌球和丰富的多糖,经4天培养的培养液中粗多糖量可达15.35g/L,菌丝干重为26.89g/L,符合了工业化生产要求。该菌的菌丝体酯酶同工酶谱较稳定,均为二条酶带,但它们的酶活性有所不同,与菌丝体生长的天数有关。并与多糖含量变化具有一定关系。     

灌浆固堤时怎样寻找黑翅土白蚁的巢位

黑翅土白蚁Odontotermes formosanus(Shirki)是我国南方诸省土质水利工程的严重害虫,它的巢系结构破坏堤坝,常常酿成灾难.本研究说明巢位真菌指示物的生长条件,利用巢位指示物进行灌浆加固堤坝,取得非常理想的效果.     

白蚁菌圃真菌多样性研究进展

白蚁菌圃存在于白蚁巢中,具有硬而脆的多孔结构,是特殊的真菌生存环境。当有白蚁在白蚁巢内活动时,蚁巢伞Termitomyces是菌圃上的优势菌;当白蚁巢被废弃,炭角菌Xylaria成为菌圃上的优势真菌。菌圃中还存在其他微生物如无性型真菌（anamorphic fungi）和酵母等。菌圃中的真菌很多具有潜在药用价值或其他经济价值。从蚁巢伞、炭角菌等主要真菌类群出发,结合分子生态学研究菌圃真菌多样性的方法,综述了白蚁菌圃真菌多样性的研究进展,揭示了目前的研究热点及存在的问题,并针对这些问题提出可能的发展方向。     

谈谈白蚁与人类的密切关系

白蚁对人类的危害众所周知 ,白蚁对人类的有益方面 ,人们知之甚少。该文重点论述白蚁对人类有益的方面。白蚁在自然界中 ,是一个名符其实的“清道夫” ,它将林地中的枯枝、落叶等转化为有益的肥料 ,回归自然 ,再被植物吸收 ;白蚁本身可加工成营养丰富的美味佳肴食品 ,也可精制成防病治病的良药和效果明显的保健补品 ;白蚁的附生物 ,如鸡菌更是美味佳肴 ,菌圃和炭棒菌也能精制成治疗多种疾病的良药。     

New trace fossils of termites (Insecta: Isoptera) from the late Eocene‐early Miocene of Egypt,and the reconstruction of ancient isopteran social behavior

Three new ichnogenera and five new ichnospecies are described for new trace fossils of termitaria (including associated gallery systems) of subterranean termites from upper Eocene through lower Miocene rocks of northern Egypt. All but two ichnospecies (Krausichnus trompitus, ichnogen, and ichnosp. nov., and A’, altus, ichnosp. nov.) show varying degrees of affinity to nests of the extant subterranean termite species Sphaerotermes sphaerothorax (Termitidae, Macro‐termitinae).

Termitichnus qatranii (Bown, 1982) is divided into two ichnospecies, the previously named T. qatranii, and a more generalized form, T. simplicidens, ichnosp. nov. Vondrichnus obovatus, ichnogen. and ichnosp. nov., is named for simple, possibly macrotermitine nests with oblate form, and Fleaglellius pagodus, ichnogen. and ichnosp. nov., records a nest form similar to V. obovatus, but one in which successive vertical growth by chamber apposition has produced a subterranean, tower‐like structure, reminiscent of that built by extant, epigeous Cubitermes. Krausichnus trompitus, ichnogen. and ichnosp. nov., and A’, altus, ichnosp. nov., record two unique nest architectures probably produced by unknown but related species of humivorous termites. The nest architecture expressed by Krausichnus is of wholly unknown affinity and is only distantly related in form to the ichnofossils of other termite nests known from the Tertiary of Egypt.

Study of the architecture of the nests of these ancient termites reveals details important in reconstructing the phylogeny of termite nests and documents two novel blueprints for chamber expansion and society budding in what were probably primitive Macrotermi‐tinae. It also indicates that at least two constructed edifices, earlier known only as epigeous manifestations of extant termite species, were almost certainly first developed by species living underground.

The extant Macrotermitinae are a subfamily of termites originally believed to have evolved in the post‐Eocene of the Ethiopian biogeo‐graphic region. We offer fossil evidence of four distinct, possibly macrotermitine structures from upper Eocene rocks. This evidence suggests that this termite subfamily (or at least their peculiar mode of nest construction) might have evolved considerably earlier, as it is already well established and exhibits several variants by the late Eocene in Egypt.     

白蚁巢菌圃真菌多样性研究

培菌性白蚁能在存在于蚁巢或分散在其周围土壤中的菌圃上培养真菌。菌圃在无白蚁存在下培养会生长出炭角菌的子实体。对分别采集自我国西南四川、云南两省的4个土白蚁属菌圃采用原位培养法分离并纯化得到40株炭角菌,划分为13个形态型,ITS1-5.8S-ITS2序列分析确定为两种炭角菌。采用建立ITS基因文库的方法分析了白蚁菌圃真菌群落多样性,结果表明有白蚁存在的菌圃,蚁巢伞为单一优势菌;废弃的蚁巢中的菌圃,木霉、炭角菌等其他真菌成为优势菌。     

Systematics of rove beetles (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Aleocharinae) associated with Hodotermopsis sjostedti (Isoptera: Termopsidae)

Members of the termitophilous subtribe Termitozyrina (Aleocharinae: Lomechusini) associated with Hodotermopsis sjostedti are taxonomically treated. The genera Hodotermophilus Naomi & Terayama and Termophidoholus Naomi & Hirono, and each type species (monotypic) are redescribed. Termophidoholus formosanus, originally described from Taiwan, and its host termite H. sjostedti are newly recorded from Laos. Yakuus iwatai Kanao & Maruyama gen. & sp. nov. and H. gloriosus were collected sympatrically in the same nests in Yaku‐shima, Japan. All of the above species, belonging to the three genera, share the presence of a batch of spurs at the tibial apex of fore and mid legs. Habitus photographs and illustrations of diagnostic features are provided for these species, and their phylogenetic relationships are discussed based on morphological similarities and the extant distribution of the host termite species.     

Termitarium volume as a determinant of invasion by obligatory termitophiles and inquilines in the nests of Constrictotermes cyphergaster (Termitidae, Nasutitermitinae)

A range of organisms can be found inside termite nests where the degree of association can vary from facultative to obligatory dependence. Studies of the dynamics of nest invasion are still unresolved, so how and when cohabitants enter termite nests remain open questions. This study analyzed one specific aspect of the dynamics of termite nest invasion by obligatory termitophiles and inquilines, i.e., whether cohabitants were more likely to invade a nest when it reached a critical nest size. We collected 36 Constrictotermes cyphergaster nests of different sizes and sampled their cohabitant fauna. Our results indicated that the invasion of C. cyphergaster nests by obligatory termitophiles and inquilines was dependent on nest size. There appeared to be a critical nest size above which nests were more prone to invasion. Above this size, there was a significantly higher likelihood of finding obligatory cohabitants. Termitophile species were observed in nests ≥2.2?L, whereas inquiline species were only occur in nests ≥13.6?L. This may indicate that the obligatory cohabitants studied here did not occupy C. cyphergaster nests at random and that they were dependent on features that made these nests suitable for cohabitation, which are linked to colony development.     

First evidence of wasp brood development inside active nests of a termite with the description of a previously unknown potter wasp species

Potter wasps (Vespidae: Eumeninae) are known to exhibit not only sophisticated preying strategies but also a remarkable ability to manipulate clay during nest building. Due to a mixture of plasticity in building behavior and flexibility in substrate preferences during nest building, the group has been reported nesting in a variety of places, including decaying nests abandoned by termite species. Yet, evidence of wasps nesting inside senescent termite mounds is poorly reported, and to date, accounts confirming their presence inside active colonies of termites are absent. Here, we address a novel intriguing association between two species from the Brazilian Cerrado: a previously unknown potter wasp (nest invader) and a termite species (nest builder). Besides scientifically describing Montezumia termitophila sp. nov. (Vespidae: Eumeninae), named after its association with the termite Constrictotermes cyphergaster (Silvestri, 1901) (Termitidae: Nasutitermitinae), we provide preliminary information about the new species'' bionomics by including (a) a hypothetical life cycle based on the evidence we collected and (b) a footage showing the first interaction between a recently ecloded wasp and a group of termites. In doing so, we attempt to provoke relevant discussions in the field and, perhaps, motivate further studies with the group. Finally, we describe a solution to efficiently detect and sample termitophilous species from termite nests, an intrinsic yet challenging task of any studies dealing with such a cryptic biological system.     

New and interesting penzigioid Xylaria species with small, soft stromata

Six penzigioid Xylaria species that are characterized by small, discoid to pulvinate, soft stromata are included in this study. Xylaria albocinctoides, X. bicampaniformis and X. lechatii are described as new; Nummularia albocincta, Hypoxylon carabayense and H. discolor are moved to the genus Xylaria to form new combinations X. albocincta, X. carabayensis and X. discolor respectively. An identification key is provided for the major aggregates of Xylaria that harbor penzigioid species as well as the species of the X. frustulosa aggregate, to which the six studied penzigioid Xylaria species belong.     

Review of bees as guests in termite nests,with a new record of the communal bee, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gaesochira obscura</Emphasis> (Smith, 1879) (Hymenoptera,Apidae), in nests of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Anoplotermes banksi</Emphasis> Emerson, 1925 (Isoptera,Termitidae, Apicotermitinae)

Associations between bees and termites are documented infrequently, but records are available for bee species ranging in behavior from solitary to highly eusocial. The subtribe Meliponina (stingless bees) is the most common bee group reported in termite nests, and, for some species, the occupancy of termite nests may be obligatory. The records of solitary bees nesting within termite nests include species of the tribes Emphorini, Centridini, Megachilini, and Paracolletini. Most of these bees can probably nest in other substrates, and their relationships with termite nests are presumably opportunistic. This study provides a review of published records of bees as guests in termite nests, and also describes the aggregation of nests of Gaesochira obscura within one nest of Anoplotermes banksi in Brazilian Amazonia. One termite nest contained at least ten nest entrances of G. obscura, with burrows 4–6 mm in diameter and about 10 cm long. Each burrow ended in brood cells in different stages of food provisioning and larval development. As commonly reported for other associations of this nature, there was no connection between the tunnels of bees and those of termites. This record adds important data on the biology of A. banksi. Because this is a single record, it is impossible to classify G. obscura either as a termitophile or termitariophile; this species may be opportunistic in relation to nesting substrate.     

黑柄炭角菌的单核苷酸多态性研究

以SNPs作为分子标记,对黑柄炭角菌的生活史和遗传多样性进行研究。基于黑柄炭角菌的基因组文库,在两个菌株（X-WC和X-LY）的34个片段（19,680bp）中共发现193个SNPs,SNP发生率为0.981%。193个SNPs位点都有两个可变的核苷酸,其中132个转换,61个颠换,转换与颠换比率为2.16。此外,对两个菌株序列进行比较,发现了41个插入/缺失位点。从34个片段中选择4个片段,分别比较菌株内的SNPs情况。X-WC的菌株内SNP发生率为每个核苷酸1.308%（30/2293）,X-LY的菌     

Nesting ecology of stingless bees and potential threats to their survival within selected landscapes in the northern Volta region of Ghana

Stingless bees are key insects in the tropics, both as pollinators of crops and as contributors to the maintenance of floral diversity through pollination of wild plants. This study investigated the nesting ecology and threats to three stingless bee species: Meliponula bocandei (Spinola), Meliponula ferruginea (Lepeletier) and Dactylurina staudingeri (Gribodo) in three landscapes characterized as forest with logging and wild honey hunting; farmlands that experience annual wild fires and a national park. The study was carried out in July 2011 and February 2012. A total of 93 stingless bee nests were found in 48 ha (density 1.9 nests per ha), 81% in tree cavities and 19% in deserted termite mounds and in the ground. M. ferruginea was the only species using deserted termite mounds (seventeen nests) and in the ground (1 nest). Although tree size (diameter at breast height, DBH >15 cm) and density of large tree were important for nest site selection, there was no influence of tree species. M. bocandei may be restricted in choice of nest site in farmland areas by the absence of trees. Reduced availability of trees in agricultural landscape together with bush burning and wild honey collecting is the main threats to stingless bees survival and abundance which need to be addressed for their successful conservation in Ghana.     

Roost Structure,Modification, and Availability in the White‐throated Round‐eared Bat,Lophostoma silvicolum (Phyllostomidae) Living in Active Termite Nests1

We studied roost structure, modification, and availability in Lophostoma silvicolum (Phyllostomidae), an insectivorous gleaning bat, on Barro Colorado Island (BCI), Panamá. Collection of nest material beneath termitaria and infrared video filming indicated that males of L. silvicolum excavate and maintain cavities inside active termite nests. A binary logistic regression analysis showed that to be suitable as roosts, termite nests have to be larger than 30 cm in diameter and taller than 30 cm, well shaded, with few transecting branches, and freely accessible from below. Use of active termite nests as roosts may provide several benefits to L. silvicolum, including reduction of competition for roost sites with sympatric bat species, reduced parasite load and a suitable microclimate. A comparison of number of all termite nests in selected forest plots with number of termite nests that are potentially suited as bat roosts and number of termite nests that are actually used by bats suggests that L. silvicolum may not be roost‐limited on BCI in spite of its highly specialized roost choice.     

我国白蚁资源利用的现状

白蚁是世界性害虫,但白蚁资源有着很高的利用价值。文章简要论述我国白蚁资源利用的研究现状及研究进展,主要包括白蚁本身、蚁巢及菌圃、蚁巢共生物--鸡榕菌Termitomyces albuminosus(Berk.)Heim、乌灵参Xylaria nigripes等直接利用价值及白蚁活动加速自然界物质循环、改善土壤理化性质、探矿等间接利用价值。同时还对白蚁资源研究利用的前景进行了展望。     

Living with your food: geckos in termitaria of Cantão

We tested three non-exclusive hypotheses that the lizard, Gymnodactylus carvalhoi , lives in termitaria to avoid thermal extremes, to avoid predators, or because of an abundance of food (dietary specialist). We first confirm that these geckos are restricted to termitaria in the region studied. Body temperatures ( T _b) of geckos averaged below environmental temperatures during day outside of termitaria and above outside temperatures at night; T _b averaged only slightly higher than temperatures inside termitaria. We conclude that thermal constraints in Cerrado habitats lacking rocks restrict Gymnodactylus to termite nests. High frequencies of tail loss and the presence of many potential predators within termitaria suggest high encounter rates with predators, indicating that predation pressure does not restrict these geckos to termite nests. Dietary data indicate that G. carvalhoi is a termite specialist. Published data indicate that other Gymnodactylus species and populations are also termite specialists, even though several live primarily outside termitaria (in crevices and under rocks). An evolutionary history of termite specialization and low thermal requirements in the clade ( Gymnodactylus ) predispose them to feed on termites within the termitaria.