Observations on Flattened Species of Gracilaria (Gracilariaceae, Rhodophyta) from Taiwan

Four flattened Gracilaria species have been reported from Taiwan: G. spinulosa, G. vieillardii, G. textorii and G. punctata, identified based on branching pattern, the presence or absence of spines, and characters that often vary seasonally. Gracilaria spinulosa was originally described from the type locality, Tainan. Species with toothed margins are usually referred to G. “vieillardii”; those with smooth margins to G. “textorii”, and those with smooth margins and dark spots scattered over the blade to G. “punctata”. Molecular analyses show that specimens with marginal teeth cluster in three different groups: a G. “vieillardii” clade, a G. spinulosa clade, and a clade sister to G. spinulosa. An undescribed species comprises the third clade, which is distinguished by its relatively large gonimoblast cells and weakly developed tubular nutritive cells. The three clades can be separated by the character of the tubular nutritive cells, the size of gonimoblast cells and certain vegetative features. Plants with entire margins form a single clade characterized by cystocarps with basal tubular nutritive cells and their absence in the cystocarp cavity. They are nested in the Hydropuntia complex and are referred to as Gracilaria “punctata” here. The records of G. textorii and G. punctata from Taiwan require reinvestigation in comparison with the Japanese species.     

“Australopithecus afarensis”: A composite species

In response to a critique byFerguson (1989),Leonard (1991) reiterates most of his original arguments for supporting “Australopithecus afarensis”Johanson, White, andCoppens, 1978 as a single species. He disregards the principle of morphological equivalence by comparing the dental metrics and morphology of a hominid with those of species of the Pongidae, which do not correspond with the degree of variation in hominids, instead of with those of species of the Hominidae. He fails to refute clear evidence that the range of variation of dental metrics and morphology in “A. afarensis” exceeds that seen in species of the Hominidae. On the basis of extreme variation, “A. afarensis” is, therefore, interpreted as representing a composite species.     

Lagomorphs from the Miocene of Sandelzhausen (southern Germany)

Three genera of lagomorphs, Prolagus, Lagopsis, and “Amphilagus,” were identified during a revision of the lagomorph material from Sandelzhausen (MN5, Early/Middle Miocene boundary, southern Germany). Evidence of two morphological and dimensional classes were observed at some tooth positions in Prolagus (some p3 show an unmistakable P. oeningensis morphology, others closely resemble P. crusafonti), but not at other tooth positions (e.g., M1–2). Insufficient data from Sandelzhausen precludes identification of two different species of Prolagus from this locality, and to define the characteristics of the possible P. crusafonti-like species. Thus, all Prolagus specimens have been classified as P. aff. oeningensis. The genus Lagopsis is represented by L. cf. penai, whose presence is compatible with a MN5 age. The relative abundance of Lagopsis to Prolagus may indicate relatively cool and wet palaeoclimatic conditions. The largest primitive lagomorph species from continental Europe is present at Sandelzhausen. Morphological and dimensional comparisons with other European primitive lagomorphs exclude any affinity with the genera Eurolagus and Titanomys and with the species included in “Amphilagus ulmensis”. Some common features with “Amphilagus antiquus” were observed, although they are not sufficient for the attribution to this taxon. Until there is a general revision of European primitive lagomorphs, the Sandelzhausen giant lagomorph is classified as “Amphilagus” sp. Its origins, whether from evolution within Europe or migration from Asia, remain unknown.      

Traditional Knowledge and Management of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Feijoa (Acca sellowiana)</Emphasis> in Southern Brazil

Traditional Knowledge and Management of Feijoa (Acca sellowiana) in Southern Brazil. This paper investigates traditional knowledge of the use and management of Acca sellowiana in southern Brazil. Fifty-six informants from three rural communities were assigned to one of four subgroups (“maintainers,” “managers,” “cultivators,” or “users”) based on their responses regarding management and use of A. sellowiana. Traditional knowledge related to use of this species is widespread among rural residents, but traditional knowledge related to management is fragmented depending on whether one uses, manages, or cultivates the species. Knowledge held in rural communities suggests that A. sellowiana could play an expanded role in local economies as well as biodiversity conservation. We suggest that participatory research could stimulate greater local use as well as on-farm conservation of A. sellowiana.     

Iota-carrageenan from a newly farmed, rare variety of eucheumoid seaweed—“endong”

A seaweed with the local name “endong” is a rare eucheumoid variety that has recently been farmed in Tawi-Tawi, southern Philippines. Local farmers describe it as “eel-like” because of its long, slender and smooth thalli. Being somewhat similar in appearance to the dominantly farmed seaweed “tambalang” (Kappaphycus alvarezii var. tambalangii), farmers mix their harvests of “endong” with those of “tambalang”. We analyzed the hydrocolloid extract from “endong” using spectroscopic and chemical techniques. The extract’s infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H and ¹³C) spectra, and sulfate and 3,6-anhydrogalactose contents revealed carrageenan of the iota-type, similar to extracts from another farmed species, Eucheuma denticulatum. This result implies that “endong” carrageenan exhibits physico-chemical properties different from those of kappa-carrageenan of “tambalang”. The findings of this study are of significance to the seaweed industry, as carrageenan quality problems could potentially arise from a mixed harvest. Seaweed farmers are advised to separate their harvests of “endong” and “tambalang”. Presented at the 19th International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan     

Genetic diversity of isolated populations of Nautilus pompilius (Mollusca, Cephalopoda) in the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea

Nautilus species are the only remaining cephalopods with an external shell. Targeted heavily by the shell trade across their distribution area, these species have a poorly known population structure and genetics. Molecular techniques have been used to assess levels of inter- and intra-population genetic diversity in isolated populations of Nautilus in the northern sections of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Australia and in the Coral Sea. Distinct populations, physically separated by depths in excess of 1,000 m were examined. RAPD analysis of genetic differences showed limited differentiation of the “Northern GBR” populations and the “Coral Sea” populations. Discrimination between the two geographic groups was observed from these data. In addition, partial sequencing of the CoxI gene region, yielded 575 bp of sequence, which was aligned for 43 samples and phylogenetic trees constructed to examine genetic relationships. Two distinct clades were resolved in the resulting trees, representing the “Northern GBR” and “Coral Sea” population groups. Inter- and intra-population relationships are presented and discussed. The differentiation of the Nautilus populations from the Northern section of the Great Barrier Reef and those from the Coral Sea were supported by two distinctly different methodologies and the significance of this separation and the potential evolutionary divergence of these two population groups is discussed.     

Coexistence of congeneric spiny lobsters on coral reefs: differences in conspecific aggregation patterns and their potential antipredator benefits

Den sharing by conspecific spiny lobsters (aggregation) is modulated by chemical attraction but may confer several, not necessarily mutually exclusive, antipredator byproduct benefits: a “guide effect”, which only benefits the individual attracted to a sheltered conspecific; a “dilution effect”, which reduces per-capita risk of predation simply through aggregation; or active “group defense”. Each potential benefit has a different set of predictors (relationships between aggregation and conspecific or predator densities), but conflicting results could suggest the simultaneous operation of more than one benefit. These predictions were tested for coexisting Panulirus guttatus (a reef-obligate) and Panulirus argus (a temporary reef-dweller) using data collected during 11 surveys on fixed sites over a coral reef in Mexico. P. guttatus greatly outnumbered P. argus, but P. argus showed a greater tendency to aggregate. All three benefits of den sharing operated for the more social P. argus, with “group defense” being of the most benefit for larger individuals, and the “guide” and “dilution” effects for smaller individuals recently immigrating into the reef habitat and sharing dens with larger conspecifics. P. guttatus did not display “group defense” and its aggregations appeared to be modulated by the interplay between attraction and aggressive behaviors. This species relied more on solitary crypticity, especially at larger sizes, but appeared to benefit from a “guide effect” at high conspecific densities. In experimental tanks, each species tended to aggregate when tested separately, but when tested jointly, aggregation among P. guttatus was significantly reduced. The experimental results reflect the differential patterns of aggregation between the fore-reef, where P. guttatus dominated, and the back-reef, where coexistence of both species was greater.     

Five decades of rapid forest spread in the Pieria Mountains (N. Greece) reconstructed by means of high-resolution pollen analysis and aerial photographs

The rapid spread of pine forests on the western side of the Pieria Mountains (N. Greece) began in 1945 and was facilitated by the recession of human activity and the siliceous geological substrate of the area. The pine expansion is visible not only in the vegetation maps for the years 1945, 1960 and 1992 but is also reflected in pollen data acquired from the high resolution analysis of a peat sequence covering the period 1945–1997, according to ²¹⁰Pb and ¹³⁷Cs dating. A possible inflation of the calculated PAR values due to discrepancies in the dating model is suspected and indirectly traced from the comparison of the Pinus mean PAR values for the most recent eight years of the monolith with those of a Tauber trap placed in the same mire. The presence of a high pollen producer such as pine enables the calculation of reliable PAR values, despite any discrepancies in the age-depth model. The Pinus PAR values “quantify” better the expansion of this timberline species, while pollen percentages reflect the same event in a “qualitative” way, i.e. as part of the general vegetation changes that take place in the area.     

Variability and structure of natural populations of Elymus caninus (L.) L. and their possible relationship with Hordelymus europaeus (L.) Jess. ex Harz as revealed by AFLP analysis

The AFLP method was used to study the inter-population variability of eight populations of Elymus caninus (L.) L. as well as three populations of Hordelymus europaeus (L.) Jess. ex Harz. In these studies a clear distinction was found between two phenotypes of E. caninus collected in the same locality. It also appeared that two populations of E. caninus representing the “pauciflorum” morphotype were clustered together, similarly as two populations of E. caninus exhibiting morphotype “caninus”. Additionally, the populations of the “pauciflorum” type were clustered together with all samples of H. europaeus. Furthermore, the same approach was applied to analyze the intra-population variability of E. caninus. The populations ranged from nearly uniform to as diverse as the samples collected from different localities. In some populations of this species the presence of off-type plants was revealed. Our data indicate the predominantly self-pollinating character of E. caninus and the possible genetic relationship between of E. caninus and H. europaeus. It is the second paper from the series: Biodiversity of wild Triticeae (Poaceae) in Poland, the first is: Mizianty M. 2005. Variability and structure of natural populations of Elymus caninus (l.) L. based on morphology. Pl. Syst. Evol. 251: 199–216.     

Systematics and genetic variation in commercial shape Kappaphycus and shape Eucheuma (Solieriaceae, Rhodophyta)

The systematics and taxonomy of Kappaphycus and Eucheuma (Solieriaceae) is confused and difficult due to morphological plasticity, lack of adequate characters to identify species and commercial names of convenience. These taxa are geographically widely dispersed through cultivation. Commercial, wild and herbarium sources were analysed; molecular markers provided insights into taxonomy and genetic variation, and where sources of genetic variation may be located. The mitochondrial cox2-3 and plastidal RuBisCo spacers were sequenced. There is a clear genetic distinction between K. alvarezii (“cottonii”) and K. striatum (“sacol”) samples. Kappaphycus alvarezii from Hawaii and some samples from Africa are also genetically distinct. Our data also show that all currently cultivated K. alvarezii from all over the world have a similar mitochondrial haplotype. Within Eucheuma denticulatum (“spinosum”) most African samples are again genetically distinct. Our data also suggest that currently cultivated E. denticulatum may have been “domesticated” several times, whereas this is not evident for the cultivated K. alvarezii. The present markers used do not distinguish all the morpho-types known in cultivation (e.g. var. tambalang, “giant” type) but do suggest that these markers may be useful to assess introductions and species identification in samples.     

Development of “universal” gene-specific markers from Malus spp. cDNA sequences, their mapping and use in synteny studies within Rosaceae

The Rosaceae contains many economically valuable crop genera, including Malus (apple), Fragaria (strawberry), and Prunus (stone fruit). There has been increasing interest in the development of linkage maps for these species, with a view to marker-assisted selection to assist breeding programs and, recently, in the development of transferable markers to permit syntenic comparisons of maps of different rosaceous genera. In this investigation, a set of Malus cDNA sequences were downloaded from the European Molecular Biology Laboratory database. The sequences were aligned with homologous full-length Arabidopsis genomic DNA sequences to identify putative intron–exon junctions and conserved flanking exon sequences. Primer pairs were designed from the conserved exon sequences flanking predicted intron–exon junctions in the Malus cDNA sequences. These were used to amplify products by polymerase chain reaction from the parents of the Malus mapping progeny “Fiesta” × “Totem.” Eleven loci, representing ten genes (39%), were polymorphic in the “Fiesta” × “Totem” population and mapped to seven Malus linkage groups. Transferability to other rosaceous genera was high, with primer pairs representing 85% of genes, amplifying products from Fragaria and primer pairs representing 85% of genes, amplifying products from Prunus genomic DNA. These primers were screened in the Fragaria and Prunus mapping bin sets and 38% of the genes were successfully located on both maps. Analysis of the markers mapped in more than one rosaceous genus revealed patterns of synteny between genera, while a comparison with the physical positions of homologous genes on the Arabidopsis genome revealed high sequence conservation but only fragmentary patterns of macrosynteny.     

Upper limits of temperature for growth inChlorella (Chlorophyceae)

The upper limit of temperature for growth is a species-specific character in the genusChlorella. The limits of 14Chlorella species range from 26–30°C (C. saccharophila) to 38–42°C (C. sorokiniana), withC. fusca var.vacuolata (34°C) andC. kessleri (34–36°C) assuming an intermediate position. Thus, there is no wide gap in the temperature limits between the normal (“low-temperature”) species ofChlorella and the “high-temperature” species,C. sorokiniana.     

Pollination biology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Disanthus cercidifolius</Emphasis> var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">longipes</Emphasis>, an endemic and endangered plant in China

Disanthus cercidifolius Maxim. var. longipes H.T. Chang usually has two inflorescences growing in opposite directions in the axillae, but occasionally three inflorescences grow paratactically. The typical flowering process could be divided into 4 periods: “Pre-dehiscence”, “Initial dehiscence”, “Full dehiscence” and “Withering”. Both the natural population and the planted population had a flowering peak of 15–35 days after the first flower bloomed. There were significant differences between the time courses of flowering of the two populations. Out-crossing is the main breeding system in this species. And autogamy decreases the risk of reproductive failure of this species. The main insect pollinators of D. cercidifolius var. longipes are Episyrphus balteatus de Geer, Scaptodrosophila coracina Kikkawa and Peng, Polistes olivaceus de Geer, Apis cerana Fabricius, Nezara viridula L. and Coccinella septempunctata L., and so on. Among the insects, S. coracina and E. balteatus are the most important and efficient pollinators, but others are inefficient pollinators. Though wind pollination is not efficient, it guarantees reproduction when insect pollinators are not available. “Mass flowering” is an adaptive behavior and reproductive strategy of this species, and “few fruiting” could be caused by the lack of pollinators.     

Phalaenopsis bellina (Rchb.f.) Christenson,a segregate from P. violacea Witte (Orchidaceae: Aeridinae)

A reevaluation of floral and vegetative morphology together with data from analysis of floral fragrance and flavonoid co-pigment chemistry suggest that specific status is warranted for the two kinds ofPhalaenopsis violacea Witte known informally as the “Bornean type” and the “Malayan type.”Phalaenopsis violacea var.bellina Rchb.f. is elevated to specific rank, providing a name for the “Bornean type” plants.     

“Meganthropus” cranial fossils from Java

There are now twelve significant hominid cranial fossils from the Lower and Middle Pleistocene of Java, all but two being from the Sangiran site. Most of this material is well-known in the literature, but three skulls, possibly representing “Meganthropus” are here described in detail for the first time. Most scholars have assigned them all toHomo erectus, while others have suggested that they represent as many as four different hominoid taxa. The author argues that they represent two possible species of hominids. “Meganthropus” I, II, and III are more massive than any of the knownH. erectus specimens. They are also relatively higher vaulted, apparently smaller brained, and have unusually thick lower occipital planes. “Meganthropus” may represent a species that separated fromH. erectus upon its arrival to Java.     

Two new“Meganthropus” mandibles from Java

There are now eleven known mandibular pieces from the Lower and Middle Pleistocene of Java, all but one being from the Sangiran site. All of these have been assigned toHomo erectus by most authorities, while others have suggested as many as four different hominoid taxa. Two of the mandibles, Sangiran 33 (Mandible H) and“Meganthropus”D (no Sangiran number yet assigned), are described here for the first time. The two new mandibles come from the Upper Pucangan Formation and date approximately 1.2–1.4 Myr. They are morphologically compatible with other“Meganthropus” mandibles described from Java. Despite attempts by numerous authorities to place all the Sangiran hominid mandibles in the species,H. erectus, the range of variation in metric and nonmetric features of the“Meganthropus” hominids is clearly beyond the know variation found inH. erectus. “Meganthropus” could represent a speciation from the well-knownH. erectus.     

Global-scale genetic identification of hammerhead sharks: Application to assessment of the international fin trade and law enforcement

The future status of sharks is an issue of widespread conservation concern due to declines in many species in the face of high levels of exploitation to satisfy market demands for products, especially fins. Substantial declines in the large-bodied hammerhead sharks, Sphyrna lewini, S. mokarran and S. zygaena, even in regions where some management occurs, indicate that informed conservation measures are warranted for these circumglobally distributed species. Despite the importance of assessing shark catch and trade on a species-specific basis to detect potential overexploitation of individual species, achieving this goal for hammerheads has proven elusive due to difficulties in identification of their products. Here, we present the development and application of a diagnostic, streamlined, five-primer multiplex polymerase chain reaction assay utilizing species-specific primers based on nuclear ribosomal ITS2 for the three hammerhead species throughout their global distribution. Application of this assay to investigations of the fin market confirmed the presence of hammerhead fins in the international trade. A study of the world’s largest fin market in Hong Kong revealed a high concordance between specific Chinese-name trade categories and fins from these three species (“Bai Chun” with S. lewini, “Gui Chun” with S. zygaena and “Gu Pian” with S.␣mokarran), and clear species preferences. This concordance information allows the use of market records for monitoring species-specific trends in trade and exploitation rates. The assay is also proving useful for identification of shark body parts in U.S. fisheries law-enforcement activities. Screening of morphologically identified “ S. lewini” from globally distributed areas using this assay with subsequent whole ITS2 sequencing suggests a cryptic species closely related to S. lewini occurs off the SE USA coast.     

Characteristics of stress response in a mushroom-pathogenic bacterium,Pseudomonas tolaasii, during the interaction withPleurotus ostreatus and carbon/nitrogen starvation in vitro

A brown blotch bacterium,Pseudomonas tolaasii strain PT814, expresses a high degree of cross-protection against generalized stress imposed by physical/chemical treatment, H₂O₂, UV, high temperature, ethanol and NaCl during the interaction withPleurotus ostreatus. Stress resistance was also noted in the bacterium in vitro under limited carbon and nitrogen sources. In addition, changes in cell morphology from a “metabolically active” rod to an “energy-saving” spherical shape were detected during starvation and the interaction. All the changes under stress were reversible. A homologue ofrpoS (σ ^S), a regulator that controls such physiological status during starvation in other bacteria, was identified inP. tolaasii strain PT814. Data suggest that the bacterium is able to withstand a complex stress environment for its survival through changes in its metabolic pattern.