Parallelism,parsimony, and the phytogeny of the lemuridae

In spite of the increasing popularity of cladistic methods in studies of primate systematics, few authors have investigated the effects of parallel evolution when such methods are applied to empirical data. To counter the effects of parallelism, cladistic techniques rely on the principle of evolutionary parsimony. When parsimony procedures are used to reconstruct the phylogeny of the Lemuridae, nine highly parsimonious phylogenies can be deduced. Further choice among these competing hypotheses of relationship is determined by the extent to which one embraces the parsimony principle. The phylogeny obtained by the most rigorous adherence to the parsimony principle is one which is wholly consistent with traditional evolutionary classifications of the Lemuridae. Moderate levels of parallelism can lead to the generation of several plausible, alternative phylogenetic hypotheses; less than 25% of the characters analyzed here need have evolved in parallel, yet they are largely responsible for the ambiguity of the nine different lemurid phylogenies. This suggests that phylogeny reconstructions based entirely on cladistic methods do not provide a suitable basis for the construction of classifications for groups such as the order Primates, where the degree of parallelism is likely to be quite high.     

The threefold parallelism of Agassiz and Haeckel,and polarity determination in phylogenetic systematics

A parallel exists between the threefold parallelism of Agassiz and Haeckel and the three valid methods of polarity determination in phylogenetic systematics. The structural gradation among taxa within a linear hierarchy, ontogenetic recapitulation, and geological succession of the threefold parallelism resemble outgroup comparison, the ontogenetic method, and the paleontological method, respectively, which are methods of polarity determination in phylogenetic systematics. The parallel involves expected congruence among similar components of the distribution of character states among organisms. The threefold parallelism is a manifestation of a world view based on linear hierarchies, whereas polarity determination is part of the methodology of phylogenetic systematics which assumes that organisms are grouped into a nested hierarchy. The threefold parallelism facilitated the ranking of previously established taxa into linear hierarchies consisting mostly of paraphyletic groups. In contrast, methods of polarity determination identify apomorphies that determine and diagnose monophyletic taxa (clades) in the nested genealogical hierarchy. Taxa in linear hierarchies are defined by sets of character states, whereas clades are defined by common ancestry. Although the threefold parallelism was ostensibly abandoned with the rejection of Haeckel's biogenetic law, some of its components continue to facilitate the progressive scenarios that are common in evolutionary thought. Although a general view of progression in organismal history may be invalid, the progressive or directional sequence of character state changes that results in the characterization of a particular clade has considerable heuristic value. Agassiz's ostensibly nested hierarchy and other pre-Darwinian classifications do not provide support for the view that the natural system can be discovered without recourse to the principle of common descent.     

Comparative phylogeography as an integrative approach to historical biogeography

Phylogeography has become a powerful approach for elucidating contemporary geographical patterns of evolutionary subdivision within species and species complexes. A recent extension of this approach is the comparison of phylogeographic patterns of multiple co-distributed taxonomic groups, or 'comparative phylogeography.' Recent comparative phylogeographic studies have revealed pervasive and previously unrecognized biogeographic patterns which suggest that vicariance has played a more important role in the historical development of modern biotic assemblages than current taxonomy would indicate. Despite the utility of comparative phylogeography for uncovering such 'cryptic vicariance', this approach has yet to be embraced by some researchers as a valuable complement to other approaches to historical biogeography. We address here some of the common misconceptions surrounding comparative phylogeography, provide an example of this approach based on the boreal mammal fauna of North America, and argue that together with other approaches, comparative phylogeography can contribute importantly to our understanding of the relationship between earth history and biotic diversification.     

世界柽麦蛾属支序生物地理学研究（鳞翅目： 麦蛾科）

基于对世界柽麦蛾属昆虫外部形态和外生殖器的形态学研究,选择了66个性状演变系列,通过PAUP*4b10软件对柽麦蛾属51种昆虫进行了支序系统学分析。分析结果认为heluanensis种团并不是一个单系群,柽麦蛾属被重新作了7个种团的划分。在支序系统学分析的基础上,柽麦蛾属昆虫的14个地理分布区域等级关系被重建,显示出古地中海地区复杂的历史,同时说明在该属分布格局中扩散事件客观存在。     

Do the Oaxacan Highlands represent a natural biotic unit? A cladistic biogeographical test based on vertebrate taxa

Aim  We analysed the distributional patterns of six terrestrial vertebrate taxa from the Oaxacan Highlands (Sierra Mazateca, Nudo de Zempoaltépetl and Sierra de Juárez) through a cladistic biogeographical approach, in order to test their naturalness as a biotic unit.
Location  The Oaxacan Highlands, Mexico.
Methods  The cladistic biogeographical analysis was based on the area cladograms of the Pseudoeurycea bellii species group (Amphibia: Plethodontidae), the genus Chlorospingus (Aves: Thraupidae), the genera Microtus , Reithrodontomys and Habromys , and the Peromyscus aztecus species group (Mammalia: Rodentia). We obtained paralogy-free subtrees, from which the components were coded in a data matrix for parsimony analysis. The data matrix was analysed with N ona through W in C lada .
Results  The parsimony analysis resulted in a single general area cladogram in which areas were fragmented following the sequence Sierra Madre Occidental, Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, Chiapas, Sierra Madre Oriental + Sierra Mazateca, Sierra Madre del Sur, Nudo de Zempoaltépetl and Sierra de Juárez.
Main conclusions  The general area cladogram shows that the Oaxacan Highlands do not constitute a natural unit. The Sierra Mazateca is the sister area to the Sierra Madre Oriental, whereas the Nudo de Zempoaltépetl and the Sierra de Juárez are closely related to the Sierra Madre del Sur. The events that might have caused these patterns include cycles of expansion and contraction of mountain pinyon, juniper and oak woodlands during the Pleistocene.     

A review of the Pterogeniidae (Goleoptera)

The Pterogeniidae, a family of beetles from Indoaustralia, are revised. They comprise five genera and 24 species. Three genera and 17 species are described as new and one species is synonymized. It is shown that the male and particularly the female genitalia provide useful means for species definition. The phylogenetic relationships are discussed based on a cladistic analysis of 23 morphological characters using PAUP. The analysis resulted in a single cladogram with following grouping: ( Kryptogenius + ( Tychogenius + ( Katagenius + ( Plerogenins + Histanocerus )))). For rooting the cladogram and polarizing the characters, Sivacrypticus indicus (Archeocrypticidae) was used as an outgroup. The majority of the species is restricted to insular tropical Asia and Oceania but four of them extend their range onto the Malayan Peninsula. Another four species are known only from continental Asia, i.e. two species from South India and one each from Malayan Peninsula and Vietnam respectively. Species of Kryptogenius, Pterogenius, Katagenius and Tychogenius are highly endemic and could therefore potentially be useful for analysing areas of endemism. For this, however, the cladistic relationships should be resolved at species level. Species of Histanocerus are more widely distributed but none is found on both sides of Wallace's line.     

A CLADISTIC ANALYSIS OF THE EVOLUTION AND BIOGEOGRAPHY OF DURVILLAEA (PHAEOPHYTA)1

The genus Durvillaea currently has four recognized species found along many exposed, rocky coastlines of the temperate to sub-Antarctic regions in the Southern Hemisphere. We propose that the current species distributions are related primarily to vicariance events and subsequent speciation associated with the breakup of Gondwana between 40 and 100 Ma. From an ancestral species, a stipitate species developed in the Tasman basin, with separation and speciation resulting in the D. potatorum/ D. willana complex in southeastern Australia and New Zealand. A second line of evolution led to D. chathamensis and D. antarctica characterized by a honeycombed medulla. The extensive distribution of D. antarctica throughout the Southern Hemisphere is related to both vicariance and dispersal events. The status of D. chathamensis as a species distinct from D. antarctica is questioned. The affinities of an as yet undescribed taxon from the Antipodes Islands are thought to be with the D. potatorum complex but require further study before they can be defined more precisely .     

Red & black or black & white? Phylogeny of the Araschnia butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) and evolution of seasonal polyphenism

Phylogeny of the butterfly genera Araschnia, Mynes, Symbrenthia and Brensymthia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Nymphalini) is reconstructed, based on 140 morphological and ecological characters. The resulting tree shows that Araschnia is a sister group of the clade including Symbrenthia, Mynes and Brensymthia (Symbrenthia is paraphyletic in the respect of remaining genera; Symbrenthia hippalus is a derived species of Mynes). The species-level relationships within Araschnia are robustly supported as follows: (A. davidis (prorsoides ((zhangi doris) (dohertyi (levana burejana))))). Analysis of the wing colour-pattern characters linked with the seasonal polyphenism in the Araschnia species suggests that the black and white coloration of the long-day (summer) generation is apomorphic. Biogeographically, the origin of polyphenism in Araschnia predates the dispersal of some Araschnia species towards the Palaearctic temperate zone, and the ecological cause of the polyphenism itself is then probably not linked with thermoregulation. The possible mimetic/cryptic scenarios for the origin of Araschnia polyphenism are discussed.     

Cladistics of Sunaristes,a genus of harpacticoid copepods associated with hermit crabs

Four species of Sunaristes (Canuellidae) are known to live in association with hermit crabs and exhibit a degree of host specificity. Although hermit crabs are common in many parts of the world, Sunaristes is notably absent from waters of the New World. The phylogeny of Sunaristes is here examined through a cladistic analysis. The reconstructed phologeny indicates that S. inaequalis and S. japonicus form a sister group, and its closest relative is S. tranteri. The sister taxon of this 3-species clade is S. paquri. It is assumed that Sunaristes evolved in the Paleocene on the north shore of the Tethys seaway. The constructed cladogram forms the basis for the analysis of vicariant events that led to the speciation and development of the present pattern of distribution of Sunaristes.