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1.
The Standard Genetic Code is organized such that similar codons encode similar amino acids. One explanation suggested that
the Standard Code is the result of natural selection to reduce the fitness ``load' that derives from the mutation and mistranslation
of protein-coding genes. We review the arguments against the mutational load-minimizing hypothesis and argue that they need
to be reassessed. We review recent analyses of the organization of the Standard Code and conclude that under cautious interpretation
they support the mutational load-minimizing hypothesis. We then present a deterministic asexual model with which we study
the mode of selection for load minimization. In this model, individual fitness is determined by a protein phenotype resulting
from the translation of a mutable set of protein-coding genes. We show that an equilibrium fitness may be associated with
a population with the same genetic code and that genetic codes that assign similar codons to similar amino acids have a higher
fitness. We also show that the number of mutant codons in each individual at equilibrium, which determines the strength of
selection for load minimization, reflects a long-term evolutionary balance between mutations in messages and selection on
proteins, rather than the number of mutations that occur in a single generation, as has been assumed by previous authors.
We thereby establish that selection for mutational load minimization acts at the level of an individual in a single generation.
We conclude with comments on the shortcomings and advantages of load minimization over other hypotheses for the origin of
the Standard Code.
Received: 4 April 2001 / Accepted: 22 October 2001 相似文献
2.
We have previously proposed an SNS hypothesis on the origin of the genetic code (Ikehara and Yoshida 1998). The hypothesis
predicts that the universal genetic code originated from the SNS code composed of 16 codons and 10 amino acids (S and N mean
G or C and either of four bases, respectively). But, it must have been very difficult to create the SNS code at one stroke
in the beginning. Therefore, we searched for a simpler code than the SNS code, which could still encode water-soluble globular
proteins with appropriate three-dimensional structures at a high probability using four conditions for globular protein formation
(hydropathy, α-helix, β-sheet, and β-turn formations). Four amino acids (Gly [G], Ala [A], Asp [D], and Val [V]) encoded by
the GNC code satisfied the four structural conditions well, but other codes in rows and columns in the universal genetic code
table do not, except for the GNG code, a slightly modified form of the GNC code. Three three-amino acid systems ([D], Leu
and Tyr; [D], Tyr and Met; Glu, Pro and Ile) also satisfied the above four conditions. But, some amino acids in the three
systems are far more complex than those encoded by the GNC code. In addition, the amino acids in the three-amino acid systems
are scattered in the universal genetic code table. Thus, we concluded that the universal genetic code originated not from
a three-amino acid system but from a four-amino acid system, the GNC code encoding [GADV]-proteins, as the most primitive
genetic code.
Received: 11 June 2001 / Accepted: 11 October 2001 相似文献
3.
A new method for looking at relationships between nucleotide sequences has been used to analyze divergence both within and
between the families of isoaccepting tRNA sets. A dendrogram of the relationships between 21 tRNA sets with different amino
acid specificities is presented as the result of the analysis. Methionine initiator tRNAs are included as a separate set.
The dendrogram has been interpreted with respect to the final stage of the evolutionary pathway with the development of highly
specific tRNAs from ambiguous molecular adaptors. The location of the sets on the dendrogram was therefore analyzed in relation
to hypotheses on the origin of the genetic code: the coevolution theory, the physicochemical hypothesis, and the hypothesis
of ambiguity reduction of the genetic code. Pairs of 16 sets of isoacceptor tRNAs, whose amino acids are in biosynthetic relationships,
occupied contiguous positions on the dendrogram, thus supporting the coevolution theory of the genetic code.
Received: 4 May 1998 / Accepted: 11 July 1998 相似文献
4.
We have assumed that the coevolution theory of genetic code origin (Wong JT, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 72:1909–1912, 1975) is
essentially correct. This theory makes it possible to identify at least 10 evolutionary stages through which genetic code
organization might have passed prior to reaching its current form. The calculation of the minimization level of all these
evolutionary stages leads to the following conclusions. (1) The minimization percentages increased linearly with the number
of amino acids codified in the codes of the various evolutionary stages when only the sense changes are considered in the
analysis. This seems to favor the physicochemical theory of genetic code origin even if, as discussed in the paper, this observation
is also compatible with the coevolution theory. (2) For the first seven evolutionary stages of the genetic code, this trend
is less clear and indeed is inverted when we consider the global optimisation of the codes due to both sense changes and synonymous
changes. This inverse correlation between minimization percentages and the number of amino acids codified in the codes of
the intermediate stages seems to favor neither the physicochemical nor the stereochemical theories of genetic code origin,
as it is in the early and intermediate stages of code development that these theories would expect minimization to have played
a crucial role, and this does not seem to be the case. However, these results are in agreement with the coevolution theory,
which attributes a role to the physicochemical properties of amino acids that, while important, is nevertheless subordinate
to the mechanism which concedes codons from the precursor amino acids to the product amino acids as the primary factor determining
the evolutionary structuring of the genetic code. The results are therefore discussed in the context of the various theories
proposed to explain genetic code origin.
Received: 25 October 1998 / Accepted: 19 February 1999 相似文献
5.
Shin-ichi Yokobori Tsutomu Suzuki Kimitsuna Watanabe 《Journal of molecular evolution》2001,53(4-5):314-326
Characteristic features of tRNA such as the anticodon sequence and modified nucleotides in the anticodon loop are thought
to be crucial effectors for promoting or restricting codon reassignment. Our recent findings on basepairing rules between
anticodon and codon in various metazoan mitochondria suggest that the complete loss of a codon is not necessarily essential
for codon reassignment to take place. We postulate that a possible competition between two tRNAs with cognate anticodon sequences
towards the relevant codon to be varied has a potential role in codon reassignment. Our proposition can be viewed as an expanded
version of the codon capture theory proposed by Osawa and Jukes (J Mol Evol 28: 271–278, 1989).
Received: 28 December 2000 / Accepted: 12 March 2001 相似文献
6.
A paper (Amirnovin R, J Mol Evol 44:473–476, 1997) seems to undermine the validity of the coevolution theory of genetic code
origin by shedding doubt on the connection between the biosynthetic relationships between amino acids and the organization
of the genetic code, at a time when the literature on the topic takes this for granted. However, as a few papers cite this
paper as evidence against the coevolution theory, and to cast aside all doubt on the subject, we have decided to reanalyze
the statistical bases on which this theory is founded. We come to the following conclusions: (1) the methods used in the above
referred paper contain certain mistakes, and (2) the statistical foundations on which the coevolution theory is based are
extremely robust. We have done this by critically appraising Amirnovin's paper and suggesting an alternative method based
on the generation of random codes which, along with the method reported in the literature, allows us to evaluate the significance,
in the genetic code, of different sets of amino acid pairs in biosynthetic relationships. In particular, by using this method
and after building up a certain set of amino acid pairs reflecting the expectations of the coevolution theory, we show that
the presence of this set in the genetic code would be obtained, purely by chance, with a probability of 6 × 10−5. This observation seems to provide particularly strong support to the coevolution theory.
Received: 28 June 1999 / Accepted: 23 October 1999 相似文献
7.
Ramin Amirnovin 《Journal of molecular evolution》1997,44(5):473-476
A computer program was used to test Wong's coevolution theory of the genetic code. The codon correlations between the codons
of biosynthetically related amino acids in the universal genetic code and in randomly generated genetic codes were compared.
It was determined that many codon correlations are also present within random genetic codes and that among the random codes
there are always several which have many more correlations than that found in the universal code. Although the number of correlations
depends on the choice of biosynthetically related amino acids, the probability of choosing a random genetic code with the
same or greater number of codon correlations as the universal genetic code was found to vary from 0.1% to 34% (with respect
to a fairly complete listing of related amino acids). Thus, Wong's theory that the genetic code arose by coevolution with
the biosynthetic pathways of amino acids, based on codon correlations between biosynthetically related amino acids, is statistical
in nature.
Received: 8 August 1996 / Accepted: 26 December 1996 相似文献
8.
Robin D. Knight Laura F. Landweber Michael Yarus 《Journal of molecular evolution》2001,53(4-5):299-313
Annotated, complete DNA sequences are available for 213 mitochondrial genomes from 132 species. These provide an extensive
sample of evolutionary adjustment of codon usage and meaning spanning the history of this organelle. Because most known coding
changes are mitochondrial, such data bear on the general mechanism of codon reassignment. Coding changes have been attributed
variously to loss of codons due to changes in directional mutation affecting the genome GC content (Osawa and Jukes 1988),
to pressure to reduce the number of mitochondrial tRNAs to minimize the genome size (Anderson and Kurland 1991), and to the
existence of transitional coding mechanisms in which translation is ambiguous (Schultz and Yarus 1994a). We find that a succession
of such steps explains existing reassignments well. In particular, (1) Genomic variation in the prevalence of a codon's third-position
nucleotide predicts relative mitochondrial codon usage well, though GC content does not. This is because A and T, and G and
C, are uncorrelated in mitochondrial genomes. (2) Codons predicted to reach zero usage (disappear) do so more often than expected
by chance, and codons that do disappear are disproportionately likely to be reassigned. However, codons predicted to disappear
are not significantly more likely to be reassigned. Therefore, low codon frequencies can be related to codon reassignment,
but appear to be neither necessary nor sufficient for reassignment. (3) Changes in the genetic code are not more likely to
accompany smaller numbers of tRNA genes and are not more frequent in smaller genomes. Thus, mitochondrial codons are not reassigned
during demonstrable selection for decreased genome size. Instead, the data suggest that both codon disappearance and codon
reassignment depend on at least one other event. This mitochondrial event (leading to reassignment) occurs more frequently
when a codon has disappeared, and produces only a small subset of possible reassignments. We suggest that coding ambiguity,
the extension of a tRNA's decoding capacity beyond its original set of codons, is the second event. Ambiguity can act alone
but often acts in concert with codon disappearance, which promotes codon reassignment.
Received: 26 October 2000 / Accepted: 19 January 2001 相似文献
9.
We consider a model of the origin of genetic code organization incorporating the biosynthetic relationships between amino acids and their physicochemical properties. We study the behavior of the genetic code in the set of codes subject both to biosynthetic constraints and to the constraint that the biosynthetic classes of amino acids must occupy only their own codon domain, as observed in the genetic code. Therefore, this set contains the smallest number of elements ever analyzed in similar studies. Under these conditions and if, as predicted by physicochemical postulates, the amino acid properties played a fundamental role in genetic code organization, it can be expected that the code must display an extremely high level of optimization. This prediction is not supported by our analysis, which indicates, for instance, a minimization percentage of only 80%. These observations can therefore be more easily explained by the coevolution theory of genetic code origin, which postulates a role that is important but not fundamental for the amino acid properties in the structuring of the code. We have also investigated the shape of the optimization landscape that might have arisen during genetic code origin. Here, too, the results seem to favor the coevolution theory because, for instance, the fact that only a few amino acid exchanges would have been sufficient to transform the genetic code (which is not a local minimum) into a much better optimized code, and that such exchanges did not actually take place, seems to suggest that, for instance, the reduction of translation errors was not the main adaptive theme structuring the genetic code. 相似文献
10.
Statistical and biochemical studies of the genetic code have found evidence of nonrandom patterns in the distribution of
codon assignments. It has, for example, been shown that the code minimizes the effects of point mutation or mistranslation:
erroneous codons are either synonymous or code for an amino acid with chemical properties very similar to those of the one
that would have been present had the error not occurred. This work has suggested that the second base of codons is less efficient
in this respect, by about three orders of magnitude, than the first and third bases. These results are based on the assumption
that all forms of error at all bases are equally likely. We extend this work to investigate (1) the effect of weighting transition
errors differently from transversion errors and (2) the effect of weighting each base differently, depending on reported mistranslation
biases. We find that if the bias affects all codon positions equally, as might be expected were the code adapted to a mutational
environment with transition/transversion bias, then any reasonable transition/transversion bias increases the relative efficiency
of the second base by an order of magnitude. In addition, if we employ weightings to allow for biases in translation, then
only 1 in every million random alternative codes generated is more efficient than the natural code. We thus conclude not only
that the natural genetic code is extremely efficient at minimizing the effects of errors, but also that its structure reflects
biases in these errors, as might be expected were the code the product of selection.
Received: 25 July 1997 / Accepted: 9 January 1998 相似文献
11.
Two forces are in general, hypothesized to have influenced the origin of the organization of the genetic code: the physicochemical
properties of amino acids and their biosynthetic relationships. In view of this, we have considered a model incorporating
these two forces. In particular, we have studied the optimization level of the physicochemical properties of amino acids in
the set of amino acid permutation codes that respects the biosynthetic relationships between amino acids. Where the properties
of amino acids are represented by polarity and molecular volume we obtain indetermination percentages in the organization
of the genetic code of approximately 40%. This indicates that the contingent factor played a significant role in structuring
the genetic code. Furthermore, this result is in agreement with the genetic code coevolution hypothesis, which attributes
a merely ancillary role to the properties of amino acids while it suggests that it was their biosynthetic relationships that
organized the code. Furthermore, this result does not favor the stereochemical models proposed to explain the origin of the
genetic code. On the other hand, where the properties of amino acids are represented by polarity alone, we obtain an indetermination
percentage of at least 21.5%. This might suggest that the polarity distances played an important role and would therefore
provide evidence in favor of the physicochemical hypothesis of genetic code origin. Although, overall, the analysis might
have given stronger support to the latter hypothesis, this did not actually occur. The results are therefore discussed in
the context of the different theories proposed to explain the origin of the genetic code.
Received: 10 September 1996 / Accepted: 3 March 1997 相似文献
12.
13.
Berry S 《Journal of molecular evolution》2002,54(5):595-613
All organisms rely on chemiosmotic membrane systems for energy transduction; the great variety of participating proteins
and pathways can be reduced to a few universal principles of operation. This chemical basis of bioenergetics is reviewed with
respect to the origin and early evolution of life. For several of the cofactors which play important roles in bioenergetic
reactions, plausible prebiotic sources have been proposed, and it seems likely that these cofactors were present before elaborate
protein structures. In particular, the hydrophobic quinones require only a membrane-enclosed compartment to yield a minimum
chemiosmotic system, since they can couple electron transport and proton translocation in a simple way. It is argued that
the central features of modern bioenergetics, such as the coupling of redox reactions and ion translocation at the cytoplasmic
membrane, probably are ancient features which arose early during the process of biogenesis. The notion of a thermophile root
of the universal phylogenetic tree has been discussed controversially, nevertheless, thermophiles are interesting model organisms
for reconstructing the origin of chemiosmotic systems, since they are often acidophiles and anaerobic respirers exploiting
iron–sulfur chemistry. This perspective can help to explain the prominent role of iron–sulfur proteins in extant biochemistry
as well as the origin of both respiration and proton extrusion within the context of a possible origin of life in the vicinity
of hot vents.
Received: 6 June 2001 / Accepted: 16 October 2001 相似文献
14.
We isolated RNAs by selection–amplification, selecting for affinity to Phe–Sepharose and elution with free l-phenylalanine. Constant sequences did not contain Phe condons or anticodons, to avoid any possible confounding influence
on initially randomized sequences. We examined the eight most frequent Phe-binding RNAs for inclusion of coding triplets.
Binding sites were defined by nucleotide conservation, protection, and interference data. Together these RNAs comprise 70%
of the 105 sequenced RNAs. The K
D for the strongest sites is ≈50 μM free amino acid, with strong stereoselectivity. One site strongly distinguishes free Phe from Trp and Tyr, a specificity
not observed previously. In these eight Phe-binding RNAs, Phe codons are not significantly associated with Phe binding sites.
However, among 21 characterized RNAs binding Phe, Tyr, Arg, and Ile, containing 1342 total nucleotides, codons are 2.7-fold
more frequent within binding sites than in surrounding sequences in the same molecules. If triplets were not specifically related to binding sites, the probability of this distribution would be 4.8 × 10−11. Therefore, triplet concentration within amino acid binding sites taken together is highly likely. In binding sites for Arg,
Tyr, and Ile cognate codons are overrepresented. Thus Arg, Tyr, and Ile may be amino acids whose codons were assigned during
an era of direct RNA–amino acid affinity. In contrast, Phe codons arguably were assigned by another criterion, perhaps during
later code evolution. 相似文献
15.
Biodegradable pH-sensitive surfactants (BPS) are a unique family of easily metabolized compounds that demonstrate pH-dependent
surface activity. These agents, in combination with other delivery systems, have demonstrated effects in enhancing transnucleic
acid activity. The increased activity has been hypothesized to occur from a release of endosomal contents. Simply, the BPS
delivery system containing nucleic acids enters the cell through an endocytotoic process. It encounters an acidic pH and becomes
surface active leading to defects in the endosomal membrane. In the current study, an in vitro model membrane was used to
better understand the liposome defect mechanisms that BPS elicit. Using this system, it is shown that BPS can induce both
liposome fusion and rupture depending upon the pH and mole ratio of BPS to membrane lipids. Futhermore, liposome fusion induced
by BPS was dependent on the total numbers of liposome particles while rupture was independent of interacting liposome particles.
The generated data indicate that BPS agents act differently from other typical surface active agents and fuosgenic compounds.
Instead of facilitating membrane fusion through the hexagonal II phase, BPS appeared to contribute and participate in the
membrane fusion at different stages.
Received: 18 February 1998/Revised: 14 July 1998 相似文献
16.
17.
Yuji Inagaki Megumi Ehara Kazuo I. Watanabe Yasuko Hayashi-Ishimaru Takeshi Ohama 《Journal of molecular evolution》1998,47(4):378-384
For the comprehensive analyses of deviant codes in protistan mitochondria (mt), we sequenced about a 1.1-kb region of a mitochondrial
(mt) gene, the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (coxI) in two chlorarachniophytes, the filose amoeba Euglypha rotunda, the cryptomonad Cryptomonas ovata, the prymnesiophyte (haptophyte) Diacronema vlkianum (Pavlovales), and the diatom Melosira ambigua. As a result of this analysis, we noticed that the UGA codon is assigned to
tryptophan (Trp) instead of being a signal for translational termination in two chlorarachniophytes and in E. rotunda. The same type of deviant code was reported previously in animals, fungi, ciliates, kinetoplastids, Chondrus crispus (a red alga), Acanthamoeba castellanii (an amoeboid protozoon), and three of the four prymnesiophyte orders with the exception of the Pavlovales. A phylogenetic
analysis based on the COXI sequences of 56 eukaryotes indicated that the organisms bearing the modified code, UGA for Trp,
are not monophyletic. Based on these studies, we propose that the ancestral mitochondrion was bearing the universal genetic
code and subsequently reassigned the codon to Trp independently, at least in the lineage of ciliates, kinetoplastids, rhodophytes,
prymnesiophytes, and fungi. We also discuss how this codon was directionally captured by Trp tRNA.
Received: 26 January 1998 / Accepted: 24 April 1998 相似文献
18.
Massimo Di Giulio 《Journal of molecular evolution》2001,53(6):724-732
Ronneberg et al. (Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:13690–13695, 2000) recently suggested abandoning the coevolution theory of genetic
code origin on the basis of two pieces of evidence. They (1) criticize the use of several pairs of amino acids in a precursor–product
relationship to support this theory and (2) suggest a new set of codes in which to investigate the statistical bases of the
coevolution theory, reaching the conclusion that this theory is not statistically validated in this set. In this paper I critically
analyze the robustness of these conclusions. Observations and arguments lead to the belief that the pairs of amino acids in
a precursor–product relationship originally used by the coevolution theory are such, or may at least be interpreted as such,
and are therefore a manifestation of this theory. Furthermore, the new set of codes that Ronneberg et al. suggest is open
to criticism and is thus substituted by the set of amino acid permutation codes, in which even the pairs of amino acids they
favor end up by supporting the coevolution theory. Overall, the analysis seems to show that the paper by Ronneberg et al.
is of minor scientific value while the coevolution theory seems to be one of the best theories at our disposal for explaining
the evolutionary organisation of the genetic code and is, contrary to their claims, statistically well validated.
Received: 21 February 2001 / Accepted: 22 May 2001 相似文献
19.
Models for the origin of the sex incorporate either obligate or facultative sexual cycles. The relevance of each assumption
to the ancestral sexual population can be examined by surveying the sexual cycles of eukaryotes, and by determining the first
lineage to diverge after sexuality evolved. Two protistan groups, the parabasalids and the oxymonads, have been suggested
to be early-branching sexual lineages. A maximum-likelihood analysis of elongation factor-1α sequences shows that the parabasalids
diverged prior to the oxymonads and thus represent the earliest sexual lineage of eukaryotes. Since both of these protist
lineages and most other eukaryotes are facultatively sexual, it is likely that the common ancestor of all known eukaryotes
was facultatively sexual as well. This finding has important implications for the ``Best-Man hypothesis' and other models
for the origin of sex.
Received: 21 August 1998 / Accepted: 26 December 1998 相似文献
20.
The microenvironment near the apical membrane of MDCK cells was studied by quantitation of the fluorescence of wheat germ
agglutin attached to fluorescein (WGA). WGA was shown to bind to sialic acid residues attached to galactose at the α-2,3 position
in the glycocalyx on the apical membrane. Young MDCK cells (5–8 days after splitting) showed a patchy distribution of WGA
at stable sites that returned to the same locations after removal of sialic acid residues by neuraminidase treatment. Other
lectins also showed stable binding to patches on the apical membrane of young cells. The ratio of WGA fluorescence emission
at two excitation wavelengths was used to measure near-membrane pH. The near-membrane pH was markedly acidic to the pH 7.4
bathing solution in both young and older cells (13–21 days after splitting). Patches on the apical membrane of young cells
exhibited a range of near-membrane pH values with a mean ±sem of 6.86 ± 0.04 (n= 121) while the near-membrane pH of older cells was 6.61 ± 0.04 (n= 120) with a uniform WGA distribution. We conclude that the distribution of lectin binding sites in young cells reflects
the underlying nonrandom location of membrane proteins in the apical membrane and that nonuniformities in the pH of patches
may indicate regional differences in membrane acid-base transport as well as in the location of charged sugars in the glycocalyx.
Received: 15 December 1999/Revised: 16 March 2000 相似文献