Examination of the method for measuring soil respiration in cultivated land: Effect of carbon dioxide concentration on soil respiration

An acceleration of soil respiration with decreasing CO₂ concentration was suggested in the field measurements. The result supporrs that obtained in laboratory experiments in our previous study. The CO₂ concentrations in a chamber of the alkali absorption method (the AA-method) were about 150–250 parts/10⁶ lower than that in the atmosphere (about 350 parts/10⁶), while those observed in the open-flow IRGA method (the OF-method) were nearly equal to the soil surface CO₂ levels. The AA-method at such low CO₂ levels in the chamber appears to overestimate the soil respiration. Our results showed that the rates obtained by the AA-method were about twice as large as those by the OF-method in field and laboratory measurements. This finding has important consequences with respect to the validity of the existing data obtained by the AA-method and the estimation of changes in the terrestrial carbon flow with elevated CO₂     

Soil CO2 efflux in a beech forest: comparison of two closed dynamic systems

The aim of this study was to understand why two closed dynamic systems with a very similar design gave large differences in soil CO₂ efflux measurements (PP systems and LI-COR). Both in the field (forest beech stand) and in the laboratory, the PPsystems gave higher estimations of soil CO₂ efflux than the LI-COR system (ranging from 30% to 50%). The difference in wind speed occurring within the soil respiration chambers (0.9 m s⁻¹ within the SRC-1 and 0.4 m s⁻¹ within the LI-6000-09 chambers) may account for the discrepancy between the two systems. An excessive air movement inside the respiration chamber is thought to disrupt the high laminar boundary layer over the forest floor. This would promote an exhaust of the CO₂ accumulated into the upper soil layers into the chamber and a lateral diffusion of CO₂ in the soil towards the respiration chamber. The discrepancy between the two systems was reduced (i) by decreasing fan speed within the SRC-1, (ii) by increasing wind speed over the soil surface outside the respiration chamber, or (iii) by using an artificial soil design without high CO₂ concentration in soil pores. We show that wind speed is an important component of soil CO₂ diffusion which must be taken into account when measuring soil CO₂ efflux, even on very fine textured soil like silt-loam soil. Proper measurement can be achieved by maintaining wind speed inside the chamber below 0.4 m s⁻¹ since low wind speed conditions predominate under forest canopies. However, more accurate measurements will be obtained by regulating wind speeds within the chamber at a velocity representative of the wind speed recorded simultaneously at the floor surface. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

农牧交错区不同植物群落土壤呼吸的日动态观测与测定方法比较

 采用动态密闭气室法（IRGA）对农牧交错区10种植物群落最大生物量时期的土壤呼吸日动态进行了测定,并将该方法得到的土壤日呼吸速率与碱液吸收法（AA）进行了比较。结果表明：1）10个群落土壤呼吸的昼夜变化比较明显,均为单峰型曲线,主要受土壤温度的驱动,但同时也受到当日降水情况和云量、风速等气象因子的较大影响。因此,这些群落土壤呼吸日动态的一致性较差,规律性并不明显。2）用碱液吸收法和动态密闭气室法测定的10个群落的土壤呼吸速率变化范围分别为394～894 mg C·m-2·d-1和313～2043 mg C·m-2·d-1,其中碱液吸收法测定结果平均为动态气室法的67.5%,明显低于动态密闭气室法。3）两种测定方法具有很好的相关性,R2为0.873 9。本研究中发现,在土壤呼吸速率低的情况下,两种方法的测定结果十分接近甚至碱液吸收法测定结果稍大于动态密闭气室法,而在土壤呼吸速率较高的情况下,动态密闭气室法测定结果则显著高于碱液吸收法。上述结果与国内外同类研究的结果高度一致,从而为校正以往采用碱液吸收法在该区域的测定结果提供了可靠依据。     

Estimating respiration of roots in soil: Interactions with soil CO2, soil temperature and soil water content

Little information is available on the variability of the dynamics of the actual and observed root respiration rate in relation to abiotic factors. In this study, we describe I) interactions between soil CO₂ concentration, temperature, soil water content and root respiration, and II) the effect of short-term fluctuations of these three environmental factors on the relation between actual and observed root respiration rates. We designed an automated, open, gas-exchange system that allows continuous measurements on 12 chambers with intact roots in soil. By using three distinct chamber designs with each a different path for the air flow, we were able to measure root respiration over a 50-fold range of soil CO₂ concentrations (400 to 25000 ppm) and to separate the effect of irrigation on observed vs. actual root respiration rate. All respiration measurements were made on one-year-old citrus seedlings in sterilized sandy soil with minimal organic material.Root respiration was strongly affected by diurnal fluctuations in temperature (Q₁₀ = 2), which agrees well with the literature. In contrast to earlier findings for Douglas-fir (Qi et al., 1994), root respiration rates of citrus were not affected by soil CO₂ concentrations (400 to 25000 ppm CO₂; pH around 6). Soil CO₂ was strongly affected by soil water content but not by respiration measurements, unless the air flow for root respiration measurements was directed through the soil. The latter method of measuring root respiration reduced soil CO₂ concentration to that of incoming air. Irrigation caused a temporary reduction in CO₂ diffusion, decreasing the observed respiration rates obtained by techniques that depended on diffusion. This apparent drop in respiration rate did not occur if the air flow was directed through the soil. Our dynamic data are used to indicate the optimal method of measuring root respiration in soil, in relation to the objectives and limitations of the experimental conditions.     

Effect of carbon dioxide concentration on microbial respiration in soil

In order to assess the validity of conventional methods for measuring CO₂ flux from soil, the relationship between soil microbial respiration and ambient CO₂ concentration was studied using an open-flow infra-red gas analyser (IRGA) method. Andosol from an upland field in central Japan was used as a soil sample. Soil microbial respiration activity was depressed with the increase of CO₂ concentration in ventilated air from 0 to 1000 ppmv. At 1000 ppmv, the respiration rate was less than half of that at 0 ppmv. Thus, it is likely that soil respiration rate is overestimated by the alkali absorption method, because CO₂ concentration in the absorption chamber is much lower than the normal level. Metabolic responses to CO₂ concentration were different among groups of soil microorganisms. The bacteria actinomycetes group cultivated on agar medium showed a more sensitive response to the CO₂ concentration than the filamentous fungi group.     

川西亚高山针叶林土壤呼吸速率与不同土层温度的关系

采用密闭气室红外CO2分析法（IRGA）,在野外连续定位测定了川西亚高山冷杉原始林的土壤呼吸,并对其不同土层（0、5、10、15和20cm）的温度进行了同步测定．在此基础上,分析了土壤呼吸的日、季节动态变化,及其与不同土层温度的关系和土壤呼吸Q10值变化．结果表明：冷杉原始林土壤呼吸呈现明显的日变化和季节变化．土壤呼吸的日最高值出现在12：00-14：00,最低值出现在8：00—10：00,与土壤表面温度的日变化一致;土壤呼吸的季节变化表明：7—8月的土壤呼吸高于9-11月,与不同土层温度季节变化规律一致;土壤呼吸与不同土层温度呈显著的指数增长关系,土壤呼吸速率与土壤15cm深处温度的相关性明显高于其它土层;利用Q10模型计算0～20cm各土层的Q10值分别为2．36、4．75、4．90、6．27和5．46,表明海拔高、温度低的环境条件下,土壤呼吸的Q10值偏高．     

Topographic and climatic controls on soil respiration in six temperate mixed-hardwood forest slopes, Korea

To better understand the effects of local topography and climate on soil respiration, we conducted field measurements and soil incubation experiments to investigate various factors influencing spatial and temporal variations in soil respiration for six mixed‐hardwood forest slopes in the midst of the Korean Peninsula. Soil respiration and soil water content (SWC) were significantly greater (P=0.09 and 0.003, respectively) on north‐facing slopes compared to south‐facing slopes, while soil temperature was not significantly different between slopes (P>0.5). At all sites, soil temperature was the primary factor driving temporal variations in soil respiration (r²=0.84–0.96) followed by SWC, which accounted for 30% of soil respiration spatial and temporal variability. Results from both field measurements and incubation experiments indicate that variations in soil respiration due to aspect can be explained by a convex‐shaped function relating SWC to normalized soil respiration rates. Annual soil respiration estimates (1070–1246 g C m^?2 yr^?1) were not closely related to mean annual air temperatures among sites from different climate regimes. When soils from each site were incubated at similar temperatures in a laboratory, respiration rates for mineral soils from wetter and cooler sites were significantly higher than those for the drier and warmer sites (n=4, P<0.01). Our results indicate that the application of standard temperature‐based Q₁₀ models to estimate soil respiration rates for larger geographic areas covering different aspects or climatic regimes are not adequate unless other factors, such as SWC and total soil nitrogen, are considered in addition to soil temperature.     

Forest floor respiration in a black spruce taiga forest ecosystem in Alaska

A technique was developed for measuring respiration of virtually undisturbed forest floor samples, and used to follow seasonal changes in two black spruce forest stands in interior Alaska, In the laboratory, soil respiration showed a positive response to increasing temperature: however, respiration measured in the field was negatively correlated with air and soil temperature, but positively correlated with water content of the soil within the range (100–250% of dry weight) normally experienced in the field. Moisture levels above 250% inhibited respiration. Precipitation events usually stimulate forest floor respiration, but prolonged periods of dry and rainy weather lead to limitation of respiration by sub- and supraoptimal moisture, respectively. Long-term confinement of soil has significant effects upon soil arthropod densities, moisture content, temperature, and respiration, and should not be taken to represent the natural conditions of the forest floor.     

Plant clipping may cause overestimation of soil respiration in a Tibetan alpine meadow,southwest China

The chamber-based method is currently the most popular approach used for measuring soil respiration of various ecosystems. When this method is applied, aboveground plant tissues within the chamber need to be clipped some time (usually 24 h) before measuring soil respiration. However, plant clipping may change soil temperature and hence soil respiration because soil respiration is highly temperature-dependent, particularly in cold regions. To determine to what extent soil respiration may be changed by the clipping, we measured soil temperature and respiration of an alpine meadow of southwest China using a chamber-based method over an annual cycle. Based on the measurements, an exponential equation was built to describe the relationship between soil respiration and temperature. Concurrently we measured the soil temperature in clipped and unclipped plots on sunny days of the study months in another independent experiment; subsequently soil respiration was estimated for these plots using the exponential equation. Though daily mean soil temperature was insignificantly different between the clipped and unclipped plots, the clipping increased soil temperature at 5 cm depth by up to 4.3°C at daytime but decreased by up to 1.4°C at nighttime during the growing season. The changes were 2.2 and 1.5°C at daytime and nighttime, respectively, in the non-growing season. It was calculated that the clipping manipulation caused an overestimation of soil respiration by 28.6 and 21.2% for the growing and non-growing seasons, respectively; nevertheless, this calculated overestimation should differ from the actual one because the data were collected on sunny days only.     

西双版纳热带季节雨林优势树种树干呼吸特征

 采用红外气体分析法（IRGA）原位监测了西双版纳热带季节雨林11种优势树种树干呼吸速率、1 cm深树干温度以及林内空气变化情况。研究发 现,11种优势树种的树干呼吸具有相同的季节规律,并且雨季均大于干季时的树干呼吸。树种间树干呼吸速率差异显著,在0. 823～2.727 μmol&;#8226;m^-2&;#8226;s^-1。树干1.3 m处所测南北方向树干呼吸无显著性差异。树干呼吸与树干温度显著相关(0.552<0.92),呈良好的自然指数回归关 系,Q₁₀值为1.90～3.03。20 ℃时各树种的RT（总树干呼吸）速率为0.771～2.570μmol&;#8226;m^-2&;#8226;s^-1。     

Rapid and straightforward estimates of photosynthetic characteristics using a portable gas exchange system

Procedures are described for estimating photosynthetic characteristics using a portable infra-red gas analysis (IRGA) system. Once the effects of stomatal limitation on CO2 assimilation have been established, up to ten parameters of photosynthesis can be estimated for a single leaf within 2 h, including: photosynthetic efficiency and capacity on both photon and CO2 bases; compensation irradiances and CO2 compensation concentrations; and light and dark respiration rates. These measurements can be made in the laboratory, glasshouse or field with relative ease. Methods for obtaining near instantaneous ("snapshot") measurements of leaf photosynthesis are also described, using carefully pre-set conditions within the leaf cuvette. Representative results are shown for Phaseolus vulgaris L. Important aspects of the procedure's experimental design, assumptions made in the analysis, and limitations of this approach are analysed.     

玉米地土壤呼吸作用对土壤温度和生物因子协同作用的响应

基于2005年玉米(Zea mays)生长季土壤呼吸作用及其影响因子的动态观测资料,分析了玉米地土壤呼吸作用的日和季动态及其对土壤温度和生物因子协同作用的响应。结果表明,玉米地土壤呼吸作用的日变化为不对称的单峰型,其最小值和最大值分别出现在6∶00~7∶00和13∶00左右;玉米生长季中,土壤呼吸速率波动较大,其均值为3.16 μmol CO₂·m^-2·s^-1,最大值为4.87 μmol CO₂·m^-2·s^-1,出现在7月28日,最小值为1.32 μmol CO₂·m^-2·s^-1,出现在5月4日。在土壤呼吸作用日变化中,土壤呼吸速率(SR)与10 cm深度土壤温度(T)呈显著的线性关系:SR=αT+β。在整个生长季节,玉米净初级生产力(NPP)与直线斜率(α)呈显著正相关,生物量(B)也明显影响直线的截距(β)。基于此,建立了玉米地土壤呼吸作用动态模型SR=(aNPP+b)T+cB²+dB+e。土壤呼吸作用季节变化的大部分(97%)可以由土壤温度、NPP和生物量的季节变化来解释。当仅考虑土壤温度对土壤呼吸作用的影响时,指数方程会过大或过小地估计了土壤呼吸强度。该文的结果强调了生物因子在土壤呼吸作用季节变化中的重要作用,同时指出土壤呼吸作用模型不仅要考虑土壤温度的影响,在生物因子影响土壤呼吸作用的温度敏感性时,还应该把生物因子纳入模型。     

Rapid and straightforward estimates of photosynthetic characteristics using a portable gas exchange system

Procedures are described for estimating photosynthetic characteristics using a portable infra-red gas analysis (IRGA) system. Once the effects of stomatal limitation on CO2 assimilation have been established, up to ten parameters of photosynthesis can be estimated for a single leaf within 2 h, including: photosynthetic efficiency and capacity on both photon and CO2 bases; compensation irradiances and CO2 compensation concentrations; and light and dark respiration rates. These measurements can be made in the laboratory, glasshouse or field with relative ease. Methods for obtaining near instantaneous ("snapshot") measurements of leaf photosynthesis are also described, using carefully pre-set conditions within the leaf cuvette. Representative results are shown for Phaseolus vulgaris L. Important aspects of the procedure's experimental design, assumptions made in the analysis, and limitations of this approach are analysed. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Winter CO2 flux from soil and snow surfaces in a cool-temperate deciduous forest, Japan

We measured diurnal and wintertime changes in CO₂ fluxes from soil and snow surfaces in a Japanese cool-temperate Quercus/Betula forest between December 1994 and May 1995. To evaluate the relationship between these winter fluxes and temperature, flux measurements were made with the open-flow infrared gas analyzer (IRGA) method rather than with the more commonly used closed chamber method or the snow CO₂ profile method. The open-flow IRGA method proved to be more successful in measurements of winter CO₂ fluxes than the two standard methods. Despite colder air temperatures, soil temperature profiles were greater than 0°C because of the thermal insulation effect of deep snowpack. This reveals that soil temperature is satisfactory for microbial respiration throughout the winter. Unfrozen soils under the snowpack showed neither diurnal nor wintertime trends in CO₂ fluxes or in soil surface temperature, although there was a daily snow surface CO₂ flux of 0.18–0.32 g m^–2. By combining this with other reference data, Japanese cool-temperate forest soils in snowy regions can be estimated to emit < 100 g m^–2 carbon over an entire winter, and this value accounts for < 15% of the annual emission. In the present study, when data for all winter fluxes were taken together, fluxes were most highly correlated with deep soil temperatures rather than the soil surface temperature. Such a high correlation can be attributed to the relatively increased respiration of the deep soil where the temperature was higher than the soil surface temperature. Thus, deeper soil temperature is a better predictor of winter CO₂ fluxes in cold and snowy ecosystems.     

干湿交替格局下黄土高原小麦田土壤呼吸的温湿度模型

全球气候变化的直接后果是气温升高,同时还可能引起强降雨增多和干旱频发,形成干湿交替的格局.土壤呼吸在全球变化过程中发挥着重要作用.以黄土高原沟壑区小麦田土壤为研究对象,采用3个全自动多通量箱以及相应的气象监测系统,对土壤呼吸和环境因子全天候连续测定,利用已有的单因子模型、双因子模型对测定的土壤呼吸与气温和湿度的关系进行了拟合,通过优化,根据实际情况提出E-Q(exponential-quadratic)模型.结果表明:(1)干湿交替格局下,基于气温的单因子模型(指数模型,幂函数模型和线性模型)不适合模拟土壤呼吸;(2)基于土壤湿度的单因子模型中,二次曲线模型最适合模拟干湿交替格局下土壤呼吸的响应情况;(3)基于气温和土壤湿度的双因子模型中,E-Q模型SR=aebT(c+dW+fW2)g,既能反映土壤呼吸随气温的正向指数变化,又能表现土壤湿度对土壤呼吸的双向调节作用,解释了土壤呼吸73.05%的变化情况,比其他双因子模型和单因子模型更能有效描述干湿交替情况下土壤呼吸对气温和土壤湿度协同变化的响应特征.     

Rates of oxygen uptake by the planktonic community of a shallow equatorial lake (Lake George,Uganda)

Summary Community respiration rates of the plankton in the upper meter of a shallow equatorial lake (Lake George, Uganda) show diurnal fluctuations within the range 1 to 4.5 mg O₂/mg chlorophyll a · h. In the deeper water, below the euphotic zone, rates show less variation and approximate to a value of 1 mg O₂/mg chl a · h. Comparative field and laboratory measurements of the relationship between community respiration and temperature indicate that the diurnal variation observed is not a simple function of temperature variation. Field measurements suggest that the rate of community respiration tends to increase, in a non-linear manner, as the daily cumulative photosynthesis per unit population increases.A series of laboratory experiments are described which attempt to fractionate, by chemical means, the oxygen uptake due to phytoplankton, bacteria and zooplankton. Although the results were very variable they indicate that somewhere between 10 and 50% of the total oxygen uptake is due non-algal material. The influence of these findings on calculations of net daily photosynthesis is discussed.     

On the assessment of root and soil respiration for soils of different textures: interactions with soil moisture contents and soil CO2 concentrations

Estimates of root and soil respiration are becoming increasingly important in agricultural and ecological research, but there is little understanding how soil texture and water content may affect these estimates. We examined the effects of soil texture on (i) estimated rates of root and soil respiration and (ii) soil CO₂ concentrations, during cycles of soil wetting and drying in the citrus rootstock, Volkamer lemon (Citrus volkameriana Tan. and Pasq.). Plants were grown in soil columns filled with three different soil mixtures varying in their sand, silt and clay content. Root and soil respiration rates, soil water content, plant water uptake and soil CO₂ concentrations were measured and dynamic relationships among these variables were developed for each soil texture treatment. We found that although the different soil textures differed in their plant-soil water relations characteristics, plant growth was only slightly affected. Root and soil respiration rates were similar under most soil moisture conditions for soils varying widely in percentages of sand, silt and clay. Only following irrigation did CO₂ efflux from the soil surface vary among soils. That is, efflux of CO₂ from the soil surface was much more restricted after watering (therefore rendering any respiration measurements inaccurate) in finer textured soils than in sandy soils because of reduced porosity in the finer textured soils. Accordingly, CO₂ reached and maintained the highest concentrations in finer textured soils (> 40 mmol CO₂ mol⁻¹). This study revealed that changes in soil moisture can affect interpretations of root and soil measurements based on CO₂ efflux, particularly in fine textured soils. The implications of the present findings for field soil CO₂ flux measurements are discussed. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Forest soil respiration across three climatically distinct chronosequences in Oregon

To assess the relative influence of edaphoclimatic gradients and stand replacing disturbance on the soil respiration of Oregon forests, we measured annual soil respiration at 36 independent forest plots arranged as three replicates of four age classes in each of three climatically distinct forest types. Annual soil respiration for the year 2001 was computed by combining periodic chamber measurements with continuous soil temperature measurements, which were used along with site-specific temperature response curves to interpolate daily soil respiration between dates of direct measurement. Results indicate significant forest type, age, and type × age interaction effects on annual soil respiration. Average annual soil respiration was 1100–1600, 1500–2100, and 500–900 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ for mesic spruce, montane Douglas-fir, and semi-arid pine forests respectively. Age related trends in annual soil respiration varied between forest types. The variation in annual soil respiration attributable to the climatic differences between forest types was 48%(CV). Once weighted by the age class distribution for each forest type, the variation in annual soil respiration attributable to stand replacing disturbance was 15%(CV). Sensitivity analysis suggests that the regional variation in annual soil respiration is most dependent on summer base rates (i.e. soil respiration normalized to a common temperature) and much less dependent on the site-specific temperature response curves (to which annual rates are relatively insensitive) and soil degree-days (which vary only 10% among plots).     

冬小麦旺盛生长期间CO2浓度升高对根际呼吸的影响

依托FACE（free air carbon dioxide enrichment）技术平台,利用阻断根法,采用H6400红外气体分析仪（IRGA）-田间原位测定的方法,研究了大气CO2浓度升高和不同氮肥水平对水稻／小麦轮作制中冬小麦旺盛生长期间根际呼吸的影响。结果表明,在整个测定期间,大气CO2浓度升高增强了根际呼吸速率,提高了根际呼吸排放量。在高N和低N处理中,高CO2浓度下的根际呼吸总排放量分别比Ambient极显著增加117．0％和90．8％。根际呼吸速率在孕穗初期达到最大值;使根际呼吸在土壤呼吸中的比重由24．5％（LN）～26．7（HN）提高到39．8％（LN）～47．1％（HN）。CO2浓度升高与氮肥用量对根际呼吸产生交互效应。表明大气CO2浓度升高将加快土壤向大气的CO2排放,结果将有助于评价未来高CO2浓度背景下农田生态系统土壤碳的固定潜力。     

Measuring tree root respiration using (13)C natural abundance: rooting medium matters

Tree root respiration utilizes a major portion of the primary production in forests and is an important process in the global carbon cycle. Because of the lack of ecologically relevant methods, tree root respiration in situ is much less studied compared with above-ground processes such as photosynthesis and leaf respiration. This study introduces a new (13)C natural tracer method for measuring tree root respiration in situ. The method partitions tree root respiration from soil respiration in buried root chambers. Rooting media substantially influenced root respiration rates. Measured in three media, the fine root respiration rates of longleaf pine were 0.78, 0.27 and 0.18 mg CO(2) carbon mg(-1) root nitrogen d(-1) at 25 degrees C in the native soil, tallgrass prairie soil, and sand-vermiculite mixture, respectively. Compared with the root excision method, the root respiration rate of longleaf pine measured by the field chamber method was 18% higher when using the native soil as rooting medium, was similar in the prairie soil, but was 42% lower if in the sand-vermiculite medium. This natural tracer method allows the use of an appropriate rooting medium and is capable of measuring root respiration nondestructively in natural forest conditions.