Occupational exposure to electric fields and induced currents associated with 400 kV substation tasks from different service platforms

The aim of the study was to investigate the occupational exposure to electric fields, average current densities, and average total contact currents at 400 kV substation tasks from different service platforms (main transformer inspection, maintenance of operating device of disconnector, maintenance of operating device of circuit breaker). The average values are calculated over measured periods (about 2.5 min). In many work tasks, the maximum electric field strengths exceeded the action values proposed in the EU Directive 2004/40/EC, but the average electric fields (0.2–24.5 kV/m) were at least 40% lower than the maximum values. The average current densities were 0.1–2.3 mA/m² and the average total contact currents 2.0–143.2 µA, that is, clearly less than the limit values of the EU Directive. The average values of the currents in head and contact currents were 16–68% lower than the maximum values when we compared the average value from all cases in the same substation. In the future it is important to pay attention to the fact that the action and limit values of the EU Directive differ significantly. It is also important to take into account that generally, the workers' exposure to the electric fields, current densities, and total contact currents are obviously lower if we use the average values from a certain measured time period (e.g., 2.5 min) than in the case where exposure is defined with only the help of the maximum values. Bioelectromagnetics 32:79–83, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Occupational exposure to electric and magnetic fields during work tasks at 110 kV substations in the Tampere region

The occupational exposure to electric and magnetic fields during various work tasks at seven 110 kV substations in Finland's Tampere region was studied. The aim was to investigate if the action values (10 kV/m for the E‐field and 500 µT for the B‐field) of the EU Directive 2004/40/EC were exceeded. Electric and magnetic fields were measured during the following work tasks: (1) walking or operating devices on the ground; (2) working from a service platform; (3) working around the power transformer on the ground or using a ladder; and (4) changing a bulb from a man hoist. In work task 2 “working from a service platform” the measured electric field (maximum value 16.6 kV/m) exceeded 10 kV/m in three cases. In the future it is important to study if the limit value (10 mA/m²) of Directive 2004/40/EC is exceeded at 110 kV substations. The occupational 500 µT action value of the magnetic flux density field (B‐field) was not exceeded in any working situation. Bioelectromagnetics 31:252–254, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Evaluation of current densities and total contact currents in occupational exposure at 400 kV substations and power lines

This investigation studied the current densities in the neck and total contact currents in occupational exposure at 400 kV substations and power lines. Eight voluntary workers simulated their normal work tasks using the helmet–mask measuring system. In all, 151 work tasks with induced current measurements were made. Work situations were: tasks in 400 kV substations, tasks in 400–110 kV towers and the cutting of vegetation under 400 kV power lines. The average current density in the neck was estimated from the current induced in the helmet. The calculated maximum average current densities in the neck varied from 1.5 to 6.4 mA/m² and the maximum total contact currents from 66.8 to 458.4 µA. The study shows that the maximum average current densities and the total contact currents (caused by electric field) in occupational exposure at 400 kV substations and power lines does not exceed the limit and action values (10 mA/m² and 1 mA) of the new EU‐directive 2004/40/EC (live‐line bare‐hand works excluded). Bioelectromagnetics 30:231–240, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The EU Physical Agents (EMF) Directive and its impact on MRI imaging in animal experiments: a submission by FRAME to the HSE

The EU Physical Agents (EMF) Directive, Directive 2004/40/EC, which threatens to greatly restrict the use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in both clinical and research situations, will come into force on 30 April 2008. This could severely affect experimental animal welfare and scientific progress, as well as patient care. FRAME made a submission to a Health and Safety Executive round-table discussion about the Directive, held in January 2006, detailing concerns about the implications that the legislation would have on implementing the Three Rs in animal-based research and testing, and the subsequent consequences for animal welfare and the quality of scientific output. The submission is reproduced here, with additional comments on the outcome of the meeting and recommendations for further research into the consequences of the Directive.     

The effect of the EU Tissues and Cells Directive on bone banking in Denmark: a case study

As a result of the EU Tissues and Cells Directive (2004/23/EC), therapeutic tissue banking is currently being restructured throughout Europe. The stated objectives are to enhance a safe and stable supply of bone and tissue in Europe and to facilitate internal exchange. We conducted an interview study to explore the effect of the Directive on Danish bone banks in terms of (1) organizational restructuring, (2) supply and range of exchange, (3) economic costs. We found that the Directive stimulated extensive re-organization of bone banks with a substantial adjoining workload; that it is doubtful whether it will increase supply and range of exchange; and that the transposition of the Directive is associated with considerable extra cost. Additionally, we found that elements in the documentation of safety were fabricated by surgeons to avoid what was seen as unnecessary questioning of potential donors.     

Current densities and total contact currents during forest clearing tasks under 400 kV power lines

The aim of the study was to analyze all values of electric currents from measured periods while performing tasks in forest clearing. The objective was also to choose and analyze measurement cases, where current measurements successfully lasted the entire work period (about 30 min). Two forestry workers volunteered to perform four forest clearing tasks under 400 kV power lines. The sampling frequency of the current measurements was 1 sample/s. The maximum values of the current densities were 1.0–1.2 mA/m² (calculated internal EFs 5.0–12.0 mV/m), and the average values were 0.2–0.4 mA/m². The highest contact current was 167.4 μA. All measured values during forest clearing tasks were lower than basic restrictions (0.1 V/m and 0.8 V/m) of the International Commission on Non‐Ionizing Radiation Protection. Bioelectromagnetics. 37:423–428, 2016. © 2016 The Authors. Bioelectromagnetics published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Modulation of tendon fibroplasia by exogenous electric currents

A chicken tendon explant model system has been developed to investigate the effects of extremely-low-frequency (ELF), low-amplitude, unipolar, square wave pulsed electric fields on fibroplasia in vitro. An electric field parameter set consisting of 1-Hz, 1-ms duration pulses, with a time-averaged current density of 7 mA/m2 (peak current density 7 A/m2) induced maximal (32%) increase in fibroblast proliferation in tendon explants exposed for 4 days. Exposure to the same field at an average current density of 1.8 mA/m2 had no effect on fibroblast proliferation, whereas exposure to current densities on greater than 10 mA/m2 inhibited proliferation and relative collagen synthesis, without affecting noncollagen protein synthesis. Fibroplasia was significantly increased in explants oriented parallel to applied electric fields having current densities of 3.5 or 7 mA/m2, but there was no detectable effect on explants oriented perpendicular to the same electric field. Fibroblast proliferation and relative collagen synthesis were inversely proportional to donor age for chickens in the 3- to 16-week age group used in this study. For these dependent variables (proliferation and relative collagen synthesis), there was no interaction between donor age and ELF electric field exposure.     

Gene therapy legislation in The Netherlands

Several regulatory organisations are involved in the assessment of clinical gene therapy trials involving genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in The Netherlands. Medical, ethical and scientific aspects are, for instance, evaluated by the Central Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (CCMO). The Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM) is the competent authority for the environmental risk assessment according to the deliberate release Directive 2001/18/EC. A Gene Therapy Office has been established in order to streamline the different national review processes and to enable the official procedures to be completed as quickly as possible. Although the Gene Therapy Office improved the application process at the national level, there is a difference of opinion between the EU member states with respect to the EU Directive according to which gene therapy trials are assessed, that urges for harmonisation. This review summarises the gene therapy legislation in The Netherlands and in particular The Netherlands rationale to follow Directive 2001/18/EC for the environmental risk assessment.     

What is being measured,and by whom? Facilitation of communication on technical measures amongst competent authorities in the implementation of the European Union Broiler Directive (2007/43/EC)

The European Union (EU) Broiler Directive (2007/43/EC) is unique amongst current EU Directives, which address animal welfare, in that it uses outcome data collected at abattoirs and on farm to monitor on-farm broiler welfare and vary the maximum permitted stocking density on farm. In this study, we describe how, by bringing together personnel from the competent authorities in 22 member states (MSs) who have responsibility for implementing the Directive, and engaging in exchange of information and technical methods regarding the Broiler Directive, it has been possible to identify differences in approach with regard to ‘what data is being collected, and by whom’ across EU MSs. Online questionnaires and workshop exercises enabled us to identify priority areas for knowledge transfer and training. For example, foot pad dermatitis, hock burn, dead on arrival and total rejections (birds rejected as unfit for human consumption by the meat inspection staff at slaughter) were identified by the MSs as measures of medium-to-low priority in terms of knowledge transfer because there are assessment methods for these conditions that are already well accepted by competent authorities. On the other hand, breast lesions, cellulitis, emaciation, joint lesions, respiratory problems, scratches, wing fractures and a number of environmental measures were identified as having high priority in terms of knowledge transfer. The study identified that there is significant variability in the stage of implementation between MSs, and responses from the participating MSs indicated that sharing of guidance and technical information between MSs may be of value in the future set-up process for those MSs engaged in implementation of the Directive.     

Echinococcus granulosus: lethal effect of low voltage direct electric current on hydatid cyst protoscoleces

We have studied a small scale method for killing hydatid cyst protoscoleces using low voltage direct electric current. After collecting hydatid cysts from infected organs of slaughtered animals, protoscoleces were cultured in four different media: hydatid cyst fluid, RPMI, normal saline, and Tris buffer, respectively. Protoscoleces from each of the above media were then transferred to an electrolysis device through which different electric current densities were applied. For measuring the survival rate of protoscoleces, flame cell movement and eosin staining was used. The results show that the survival rate of protoscoleces in hydatid fluid was dependent on the electric current density and the time of the applied current. Current densities of 62.5 mA/cm2 (11 V), 53.71 mA/cm2 (10 V), and 18.18 mA/cm2 (5 V) after 1, 2, and 3 min, respectively, killed all the parasites in the hydatid fluid. However, a current density of 7 mA/cm2 (9 V) in RPMI medium after 3 min was most effective.     

Exclusion of deceased donors post-procurement of tissues

The EU Tissues and Cells Directive (2004/23/EC, 2006/17/EC, 2006/86/EC) (EUTCD) provides standards for quality and safety for all aspects of banking of tissues and cells for clinical applications. Commission Directive 2006/17/EC stipulates that the complete donor record with all the medical information is assessed for suitability before releasing tissues for clinical use. The aim of this study was to investigate the medical reasons for post-procurement donor exclusion, to identify the various potential sources for gathering information about donors’ medical and behavioural history and to evaluate their contribution to maximising the safety of donations. Information was collected from the Tissue Services (TS) records of 1000 consecutive deceased donors submitted to National Health Service Blood and Transplant (NHSBT) medical officers for authorisation for release for subsequent tissue processing and then for transplantation. Of the 1000 donors 60 (6%) were excluded because they did not fulfil the donor selection requirements of the EUTCD and NHSBT donor selection guidelines. The main reasons for medical exclusion were the presence of significant local or systemic infection in 32 donors (53% of those excluded for medical reasons) and a history of past or occult malignancy in 9 donors (15% of those excluded for medical reasons) which was not identified prior to procurement. The information leading to post-procurement exclusion was obtained from autopsy reports in 35 of the 60 excluded donors for medical reasons (58%) and from the general practitioner for 10 donors (17% of those excluded for medical reasons). In summary, careful evaluation of complete donor records reduces the potential risk of disease transmission by tissue allografts and ensures compliance with regulations and guidelines. The findings may lead to changes in donor selection policies with the aim of improving efficiency without compromising safety.     

Calculation of electric fields and currents induced in a millimeter-resolution human model at 60 Hz using the FDTD method

The finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method has previously been used to calculate induced currents in anatomically based models of the human body at frequencies ranging from 20 to 915 MHz and resolutions down to about 1.25 cm. Calculations at lower frequencies and higher resolutions have been precluded by the huge number of time steps that would be needed in these simulations. This paper describes a method used to overcome this problem and efficiently calculate induced currents in an MRI-based, 6-mm-resolution model of the human under a high-voltage transmission line. This model is significantly higher resolution than the 1.31-cm-resolution model previously used; therefore, it can be used to pinpoint locations of peak current densities in the body. Proposed safety guidelines would allow external electric fields of 10 kV/m and 25 kV/m for exposure to 60 Hz fields of the general public and workers, respectively. For this external electric field exposure of 10 kV/m, local induced current densities as high as 20 mA/m² are found in the head and trunk with even higher values (above 150 mA/m²) in the legs. These currents are considerably higher than the 4 or even 10 mA/m² that have been suggested in the various safety guidelines, thus indicating an inconsistency in the proposed guidelines. In addition, several ratios of E/H typical of power line exposures were examined, and it was found that the vertical electric field couples strongly to the body, whereas the horizontal magnetic field does not. Bioelectromagnetics 19:293–299, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Comments on the sub-group reports of the EU Technical Expert Working Group on the revision of Directive 86/609/EEC on the protection of animals used for experimental and other scientific purposes

A critical analysis is presented of the reports produced by four Technical Expert Working Group Sub-groups (SGs) on Ethical Review, Cost-Benefit, Authorisation and Scope, which were published on the EC website (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/lab_animals/ia_info_en.htm), as part of the European Commission (EC)s review of EU Directive 86/609 EEC. This is in addition to our official response to the internet consultation questionnaire, submitted to the Commission on behalf of FRAME. Whilst the respective SG reports were extensive and detailed, we have identified several shortcomings, and in particular, a frequent lack of consensus among the SG members, resulting in a lack of clear guidance for the EC on what the revised Directive should contain, with reference to a number of crucial issues. Such indecisiveness could lead to wide discrepancies in the approaches of the EC, the European Parliament and the EU Member States concerning many issues of importance to animal welfare and the implementation of alternatives to animal experiments. These concerns range from logistical issues, such as requirements for named officers in authorised establishments, and the recording and publishing of statistics on animal use, to ethical and scientific problems, including the use of non-human primates, local ethical review, and education and training on the essential link between the Three Rs concept and best scientific practice. In each case, the basis for our concerns is explained, and suggestions for improvements to be incorporated into the revised Directive are made, in the hope that the harmonisation of approaches to laboratory animal experimentation and the use of alternative methods in the Member States can be maximised.     

Interpretive conundrum on the exclusion criterion of “transplantation with xenografts” for tissue and cell donation

In the context of the EU Directives for human tissues and cells (2004/23/EC, 2006/17/EC and 2006/86/EC) further interest has arisen on the practical application of a few clauses. One such aspect, for the evaluation phase of a potential donor, is the interpretation of the exclusion criterion "transplantation with xenografts." This article outlines the consensus viewpoints regarding the earlier evaluation of the risks related to xenotransplantation and describes the current status of the terminology and recommendations/laws in several healthcare sectors. The application of uniform terminology is encouraged within the healthcare sectors at the international level.     

Biochemical evaluation of bioelectricity production process from anaerobic wastewater treatment in a single chambered microbial fuel cell (MFC) employing glass wool membrane

Biochemical functioning of single chambered microbial fuel cell (MFC) using glass wool as proton exchange membrane (PEM) operated with selectively enriched acidogenic mixed culture was evaluated in terms of bioelectricity production and wastewater treatment. Performance of MFC was studied at two different organic/substrate loading rates (OLR) (2.64 and 3.54 kg COD/m(3)) and operating pH 6 and 7 using non-coated plain graphite electrodes (mediatorless anode; air cathode). Applied OLR in association with operating pH showed marked influence on the power output and substrate degradation efficiency. Higher current density was observed at acidophilic conditions [pH 6; 98.13 mA/m(2) (2.64 kg COD/m(3)-day; 100 Omega) and 111.29 mA/m(2) (3.54 kg COD/m(3)-day; 100 Omega)] rather than neutral conditions [pH 7; 100.52 mA/m(2) (2.64 kg COD/m(3)-day; 100 Omega) and 98.13 mA/m(2) (3.54 kg COD/m(3)-day; 100 Omega)]. On the contrary, effective substrate degradation was observed at neutral pH. MFC performance was evaluated employing polarization curve, impedance analysis, cell potential, Coulombic efficiency and bioprocess monitoring. Sustainable power yield was calculated at stable cell potential.     

Strategic Responses to Environmental Regulation in the U.K. Automotive Sector: The European Union End-of-Life Vehicle Directive and the Porter Hypothesis

As of 1 January 2006 all automotive OEMs (original equipment manufacturers) and component manufacturers operating within the European Union will need to comply with the End-of-Life Vehicle Directive (referred to hereafter as the EU ELV Directive). The EU ELV Directive compels all OEMs to take back and dismantle all motor vehicles for domestic use at the end of their useful lives. Each component part will then be either reused or recycled. To this end, the ultimate goal of the EU ELV Directive is that all motor vehicles for domestic use will have a reuse or recyclable content of 85% at the end of their useful lives, moving toward 95% by 2015. The burden of the EU ELV Directive falls on both the OEMs and their component manufacturers, forcing them to innovate and "design for disassembly." This being the case, it offers a unique real world example with which to test the Porter Hypothesis. Porter asserts that strict, correctly formulated environmental regulation can offer a firm secondary benefits through improved product design and the reduction of waste. This in turn allows the firm to offset the cost of compliance. Because the EU ELV Directive has been fashioned to force firms into a process of innovation and redesign, the magnitude of these so-called offsets can be judged. This article employs Rugman and Verbeke's 1998 strategic matrix of firm response to environmental regulation to examine qualitative details of the strategic response of automotive component manufacturers and OEMs in the United Kingdom to the demands of the directive to judge the volume of offsets generated. This analysis shows no support for the Porter Hypothesis and challenges the assumptions of Rugman and Verbeke's model.     

Phantom Model Testing of Active Implantable Cardiac Devices at 50/60 Hz Electric Field

Exposure to external extremely low-frequency (ELF) electric and magnetic fields induces the development of electric fields inside the human body, with their nature depending on multiple factors including the human body characteristics and frequency, amplitude, and wave shape of the field. The objective of this study was to determine whether active implanted cardiac devices may be perturbed by a 50 or 60 Hz electric field and at which level. A numerical method was used to design the experimental setup. Several configurations including disadvantageous scenarios, 11 implantable cardioverter-defibrillators, and 43 cardiac pacemakers were tested in vitro by an experimental bench test up to 100 kV/m at 50 Hz and 83 kV/m at 60 Hz. No failure was observed for ICNIRP public exposure levels for most configurations (in more than 99% of the clinical cases), except for six pacemakers tested in unipolar mode with maximum sensitivity and atrial sensing. The implants configured with a nominal sensitivity in the bipolar mode were found to be resistant to electric fields exceeding the low action levels, even for the highest action levels, as defined by the Directive 2013/35/EU. Bioelectromagnetics. 2020;41:136–147. © 2020 Bioelectromagnetics Society.     

Extracellular currents alter gap junction intercellular communication in synovial fibroblasts

We studied the effect of extremely low frequency (ELF) currents on gap junction intercellular communication (GJIC) mediated by connexin43 protein. Confluent monolayers of synovial fibroblasts (HIG-82) and neuroblastoma cells (5Y) were exposed in bath solution to 0-75 mA/m(2) (0-56 mV/m), 60 Hz. Single channel conductance, cell membrane current-voltage (I-V) curves, and Ca(2+) influx were measured using the nystatin single and double patch methods. The conductances of the closed and open states of the gap junction channel in HIG-82 cells were each significantly reduced (by 0.76 and 0.39 pA, respectively) in cells exposed to 20 mA/m(2). Current densities as low as 10 mA/m(2) significantly increased Ca(2+) influx in HIG-82 cells. No effects were seen in 5Y cells. The I-V curves of the plasma membranes of both types of cells were independent of 60 Hz electric fields and current densities, 0-75 mA/m(2), indicating that the effect of the 60 Hz fields on GJIC in HIG-82 cells was not mediated by a change in membrane potential. We conclude that ELF electric fields can alter GJIC in synovial cells via a mechanism that does not depend on changes in membrane potential, but may depend on Ca(2+) influx. The results open the possibility that GJIC mediated responses in synovial cells, such as for example, their secretory responses to proinflammatory cytokines, could be antagonized by the application of ELF electric fields.