克隆动物研究进展

本文介绍了世界上和中国采用细胞核移植技术克隆动物的研究历史。综述了细胞核移植的程序、方法和影响因素,包括受体卵母细胞的去核、供体细胞核的制备、核移植、激活、受体细胞与供体细胞的融合、重组胚的体内和体外培养以及胚胎移植产生克隆动物。对克隆动物研究和应用前景进行了讨论。近期的研究结果表明,多代克隆可产生大量遗传性相同的动物,不久的将来克隆技术在商业上的应用将成为现实。     

The effects of chemical enucleation combined with whole cell intracytoplasmic injection on panda-rabbit interspecies nuclear transfer

Conventional methods of somatic cell nuclear transfer either by electrofusion or direct nucleus injection have very low efficiency in animal cloning, especially interspecies cloning. To increase the efficiency of interspecies somatic cell nuclear transfer, in the present study we introduced a method of whole cell intracytoplasmic injection (WCICI) combined with chemical enucleation into panda-rabbit nuclear transfer and assessed the effects of this method on the enucleation rate of rabbit oocytes and the in vitro development and spindle structures of giant panda-rabbit reconstructed embryos. Our results demonstrated that chemical enucleation can be used in rabbit oocytes and the optimal enucleation result can be obtained. When we compared the rates of cleavage and blastocyst formation of subzonal injection (SUZI) and WCICI using chemically enucleated rabbit oocytes as cytoplasm recipients, the rates in the WCICI group were higher than those in the SUZI group, but there was no statistically siginificant difference (p > 0.05) between the two methods. The microtubule structures of rabbit oocytes enucleated by chemicals and giant panda-rabbit embryos reconstructed by WCICI combined with chemical enucleation were normal. Therefore the present study suggests that WCICI combined with chemical enucleation can provide an efficient and less labor-intensive protocol of interspecies somatic cell nuclear transfer for producing giant panda cloned embryos.     

Establishment of an efficient somatic cell nuclear transfer system for production of transgenic pigs

Handmade cloning (HMC) is now an established procedure used in several species for somatic cell nuclear transfer, but only applied in two related laboratories for pigs. The aim of this review is to facilitate widespread application by summarizing the process of establishment and explaining the background of the incorporated special approaches. Optimized steps of traditional cloning in pigs (in vitro maturation, activation, embryo culture) were merged with those of the micromanipulation-free HMC that has been modified according to the specific needs of sensitive porcine oocytes (partial zona digestion before enucleation, two-step zona-free fusion with the somatic cell; initiation of activation with the second fusion). The zona-free approach required embryo culture to the blastocyst stage before surgical transfer of embryos to the uterine horns of recipient sows in the proper phase of an unstimulated cycle. Eventually a competitive, inexpensive and reliable alternative to traditional porcine nuclear transfer cloning techniques evolved that is also suitable to produce transgenic offspring containing various genetic modifications to establish models for several human diseases with genetic background. Further improvements and involvement of additional techniques to increase the overall efficiency and facilitate practical applications are expected in the foreseeable future.     

利用IVF废弃胚胎为核移植受体构建人体细胞克隆胚胎

目的：探讨利用IVF废弃胚胎构建人体细胞克隆胚胎的发育潜能及其在人治疗性克隆应用的可能性。方法：收集2008年7-12月在广州医学院第三附属医院进行体外受精-胚胎移植周期中的多精受精胚胎和MII期体外受精失败卵母细胞,运用显微操作技术构建人体细胞克隆胚胎,观察胚胎发育情况。结果：多精受精胚胎为核移植受体的克隆胚胎能够发育到8-细胞期,受精失败MII期卵母细胞为核移植受体的克隆胚胎能够激活,但不能够卵裂。两种IVF废弃的胚胎构建的人体细胞克隆胚胎在去核成功率,注核成功率上无显著差异（P＆gt;0.05）,但卵裂率和8细胞率上具有显著差异（P＆lt;0.05）。结论：多精受精胚胎比MII期体外受精失败卵母细胞更适合作为人核移植受体细胞。     

Improvements in cloning efficiencies may be possible by increasing uniformity in recipient oocytes and donor cells

The low efficiency of somatic cell cloning is the major obstacle to widespread use of this technology. Incomplete nuclear reprogramming following the transfer of donor nuclei into recipient oocytes has been implicated as a primary reason for the low efficiency of the cloning procedure. The mechanisms and factors that affect the progression of the nuclear reprogramming process have not been completely elucidated, but the identification of these factors and their subsequent manipulation would increase cloning efficiency. At present, many groups are studying donor nucleus reprogramming. Here, we present an approach in which the efficiency of producing viable offspring is improved by selecting recipient oocytes and donor cells that will produce cloned embryos with functionally reprogrammed nuclei. This approach will produce information useful in future studies aimed at further deciphering the nuclear reprogramming process.     

牛体细胞核移植技术研究进展

对近年来牛体细胞核移植技术研究的进展作一综述。其中包括:供体细胞种类、传代次数和所处细胞周期的选择;对供体细胞的特殊处理;卵母细胞的采集;传统去核方法的优化、去透明带核移植技术的建立与发展;胚胎重构、激活和体外培养条件的比较与改进等内容。     

Demecolcine化学辅助去核技术在牛体细胞核移植中的初步研究

本实验目的是研究demecolcine辅助去核的卵母细胞能否支持牛的核移植胚胎的发育。通过化学药物demecolcine处理牛MII期卵母细胞来辅助去除牛卵母细胞核,并用去核的卵母细胞做受体,进行核移植的研究。实验结果显示,demecolcine辅助去核后的卵母细胞质膜有明显一个或二个突起,并且突起内都含有卵母细胞染色体组,显示去核效果较好（57.89%～73.3%）。药物处理一小时为最适时间,去核率可达73.3%。对demecolcine辅助去核的卵母细胞的核移植胚胎发育情况显示囊胚率较盲吸法核移植胚胎较好（12.5%VS10.2%）,但二者差异不显著(p>0.05)。Demecolcine药物处理后的卵母细胞能够支持核移植胚胎的发育。Demecolcine辅助去核可以在牛体细胞核移植中的到应用。     

A comparison of established and new approaches in ovine and bovine nuclear transfer

Several breakthroughs in nuclear transfer research were first achieved in sheep, although cattle soon became the main livestock species of interest. However, sheep still offer significant advantages both in basic and applied research. With increased interest in cloning of livestock, new approaches have been developed for both sheep and cattle nuclear transfer technology. These include methods for zona-free nuclear transfer that can be performed with or without the use of micromanipulator. Here we describe four different nuclear transfer methods including the traditional micromanipulation-assisted method in sheep, zona-free method in sheep in which the order of enucleation and nucleus delivery have been reversed ("reverse-order" cloning) and zona free manual cloning methods ("hand-made cloning") for embryonic and somatic cloning in cattle. The purpose of this paper is to encourage people to familiarize themselves with these different methods available and to help them choose and test the method most suitable for their particular circumstances.     

Cloning of Asian yellow goat (C. hircus) by somatic cell nuclear transfer: telophase enucleation combined with whole cell intracytoplasmic injection

Our and other previous studies have shown that telophase enucleation is an efficient method for preparing recipient cytoplasts in nuclear transfer. Conventional methods of somatic cell nuclear transfer either by electro-fusion or direct nucleus injection have very low efficiency in animal somatic cell cloning. To simplify the manipulation procedure and increase the efficiency of somatic cell nuclear transfer, this study was designed to study in vitro and in vivo development of Asian yellow goat cloned embryos reconstructed by direct whole cell intracytoplasmic injection (WCICI) into in vitro matured oocytes enucleated at telophase II stage. Our results demonstrated that the rates of cleavage and blastocyst development of embryos reconstructed by WCICI were slightly higher than in conventional subzonal injection (SUZI) group, but no statistic difference (P > 0.05) existed between these two methods. However, the percentage of successful embryonic reconstruction in WCICI group was significantly higher than that in SUZI group (P < 0.05). After embryo transfer at 4-cell stage, the foster in both groups gave birth to offspring. Therefore, the present study suggests that the telophase ooplasm could properly reprogram the genome of somatic cells, produce Asian yellow goat cloned embryos and viable kids, and whole cell intracytoplasmic injection is an efficient protocol for goat somatic cell nuclear transfer.     

供核细胞对体细胞核移植效率的影响

利用体细胞核移植技术克隆动物、生产转基因家畜具有极大的应用潜力。然而,核移植效率低下、克隆后代形态异常等问题仍然制约着体细胞核移植技术的产业化进展。影响体细胞核移植效率的因素很多,该文着重从供核细胞的类型、细胞体外培养、细胞凋亡及转基因操作等方面阐述其对体细胞核移植效率的影响。     

Effect of timing of the removal of oocyte chromosomes before or after injection of somatic nucleus on development of NT embryos

Cloning methods are now well described and becoming routine. Yet the frequency at which live cloned offspring are produced (as a percentage of starting one-cell embryos) remains below 5% irrespective of nucleus donor species or cell type. In considering the cause(s) of this universally low efficiency, features common to all cloning protocols are strong candidates. One such shared feature is enucleation; the donor nucleus is inserted into an enucleated cytoplast (ooplast). However, it is not known whether a nucleus-free metaphase II oocyte is developmentally impaired other than by virtue of lacking chromosomes, or if in nuclear transfer protocols, enucleation removes factors necessary to reprogram the incoming nucleus. We have here investigated the role of enucleation in nuclear transfer. Three hours after the injection of cumulus cell nuclei into non-enucleated oocytes, 65% contained two distinct metaphase spindles, with the remainder exhibiting a single spindle in which oocyte-derived and nucleus donor chromosomes were mixed. However, staining only one hour after donor nucleus insertion revealed that most had two discrete spindles. In the absence of staining, the donor nucleus spindle was not visible. This provided a straightforward way to identify and select the oocyte-derived metaphase chromosomes 1 h after donor nucleus microinjection, and 34-41% cloned embryo developed to the morulla-blastocyst stage following Sr(2+)-induced activation. Of these, two (1% of starting one-cell embryos) developed to term, an efficiency which is comparable to that obtained for controls (6 clone; 1-2%) in which enucleation preceded nuclear transfer. In conclusion, the timing of the removal of oocyte chromosomes before or after injection of somatic nucleus had no effect on cloned embryo development. These findings argue that neither oocyte chromosome depletion per se, nor the potential removal of "reprogramming" factors during enucleation explain the low efficiency of nuclear transfer cloning.     

Cloning of non-human primates: the road "less traveled by"

Early studies on cloning of non-human primates by nuclear transfer utilized embryonic blastomeres from preimplantation embryos which resulted in the reproducible birth of live offspring. Soon after, the focus shifted to employing somatic cells as a source of donor nuclei (somatic cell nuclear transfer, SCNT). However, initial efforts were plagued with inefficient nuclear reprogramming and poor embryonic development when standard SCNT methods were utilized. Implementation of several key SCNT modifications was critical to overcome these problems. In particular, a non-invasive method of visualizing the metaphase chromosomes during enucleation was developed to preserve the reprogramming capacity of monkey oocytes. These modifications dramatically improved the efficiency of SCNT, yielding high blastocyst development in vitro. To date, SCNT has been successfully used to derive pluripotent embryonic stem cells (ESCs) from adult monkey skin fibroblasts. These remarkable advances have the potential for development of human autologous ESCs and cures for many human diseases. Reproductive cloning of nonhuman primates by SCNT has not been achieved yet. We have been able to establish several pregnancies with SCNT embryos which, so far, did not progress to term. In this review, we summarize the approaches, obstacles and accomplishments of SCNT in a non-human primate model.     

A reliable, noninvasive technique for spindle imaging and enucleation of mammalian oocytes

Factors affecting the efficiency of animal cloning remain to be elucidated. Enucleation of recipient oocytes is a critical step in cloning procedures and typically is performed by aspirating a portion of the cytoplasm underlying the first polar body. Enucleation is evaluated using epifluorescence after Hoechst staining for DNA, which may disrupt functions of the cytoplast, especially mitochondria. Mitochondrial DNA in Dolly and other cloned sheep has been shown to derive exclusively from recipient oocytes. Not only might evaluation of the aspirated karyoplast portion inadequately reflect the state of the cytoplast, it is also time consuming. Here we report a reliable, noninvasive technique for spindle imaging and enucleation of oocytes using a new microscope, the Pol-Scope. The efficiency of enucleation was 100%, and only 5.5% of the oocytes' mitochondria entered the karyoplast upon Pol-Scope-directed removal of the spindle. Moreover, Pol-Scope imaging of spindles and micromanipulation did not compromise the developmental competence of reconstituted oocytes and cytoplasts.     

一种改进的牛体细胞核移植去核方法

为了提高传统的盲吸法牛体细胞核移植去核效率,将0.5mL离心管底部截掉,在截口处蒙上一层400目的细胞筛网,再与1 mL的离心管套在一起。实验1,将成熟的卵母细胞置于改造过的离心管内膜上,分别以1,000r/min、2,000r/min及3,000r/min离心10min,Hoechst 33342染色后,在荧光显微镜下计算第一极体与染色体的位置关系及去核效率;实验2,将卵母细胞以2,000r/min离心后去核做受体,颗粒细胞做供体进行核移植,检查重构胚胎的早期发育情况。结果表明:以2,000 r/min将卵母细胞离心10min后,有86.6%卵母细胞的极体与染色体之间夹角在20°以内,此时去核效率最高(87.4%);将卵母细胞离心后,对随后的重构胚发育无影响。因此,采用离心辅助去核的方法可以显著提高牛卵母细胞的去核效率。     

Embryogenesis and blastocyst development after somatic cell nuclear transfer in nonhuman primates: overcoming defects caused by meiotic spindle extraction

Therapeutic cloning or nuclear transfer for stem cells (NTSC) seeks to overcome immune rejection through the development of embryonic stem cells (ES cells) derived from cloned blastocysts. The successful derivation of a human embryonic stem cell (hESC) line from blastocysts generated by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) provides proof-of-principle for "therapeutic cloning," though immune matching of the differentiated NT-hES remains to be established. Here, in nonhuman primates (NHPs; rhesus and cynomologus macaques), the strategies used with human SCNT improve NHP-SCNT development significantly. Protocol improvements include the following: enucleation just prior to metaphase-II arrest; extrusion rather than extraction of the meiotic spindle-chromosome complex (SCC); nuclear transfer by electrofusion with simultaneous cytoplast activation; and sequential media. Embryo transfers (ET) of 135 SCNT-NHP into 25 staged surrogates did not result in convincing evidence of pregnancies after 30 days post-ET. These results demonstrate that (i) protocols optimized in humans generate preimplantation embryos in nonhuman primates; (ii) some, though perhaps not yet all, hurdles in deriving NT-nhpES cells from cloned macaque embryos (therapeutic cloning) have been overcome; (iii) reproductive cloning with SCNT-NHP embryos appears significantly less efficient than with fertilized embryos; (iv) therapeutic cloning with matured metaphase-II oocytes, aged oocytes, or "fertilization failures" might remain difficult since enucleation is optimally performed prior to metaphase-II arrest; and (v) challenges remain for producing reproductive successes since NT embryos appear inferior to fertilized ones due to spindle defects resulting from centrosome and motor deficiencies that produce aneuploid preimplantation embryos, among other anomalies including genomic imprinting, mitochondrial and cytoplasmic heterogeneities, cell cycle asynchronies, and improper nuclear reprogramming.     

化学诱导法——卵母细胞去核新策略

哺乳动物体细胞克隆技术在过去的几年里取得了飞速发展 ,但是核移植的效率依然很低。于是人们不断的从各个方面进行探索 ,去核方法随之也成为其中的一个热点。但是传统的物理去核存在着技术要求高、耗费时间长、对细胞损伤大的缺点 ,作为思路转换的产物 ,一种新的卵母细胞去核技术———Deme诱导去核引起了各国科学家的广泛关注。文章着重介绍了Deme诱导去核辅助的核移植程序 ,Deme诱导去核成功率的影响因素 ,Deme诱导去核方法对卵母细胞及克隆胚胎的影响 ,并结合作者从事的研究对该方法目前存在的问题及某些环节可能的改进措施提出了看法。无论如何 ,Deme诱导去核方法的有效应用仍然需要作进一步的深入研究。     

Cloning animals by somatic cell nuclear transfer – biological factors

Cloning by nuclear transfer using mammalian somatic cells has enormous potential application. However, somatic cloning has been inefficient in all species in which live clones have been produced. High abortion and fetal mortality rates are commonly observed. These developmental defects have been attributed to incomplete reprogramming of the somatic nuclei by the cloning process. Various strategies have been used to improve the efficiency of nuclear transfer, however, significant breakthroughs are yet to happen. In this review we will discuss studies conducted, in our laboratories and those of others, to gain a better understanding of nuclear reprogramming. Because cattle are a species widely used for nuclear transfer studies, and more laboratories have succeeded in cloning cattle than any other specie, this review will be focused on somatic cell cloning of cattle.     

Reprogramming is essential in nuclear transfer

Fertile offspring have been produced by nuclear transfer from adult somatic cells in several mammalian species (Wilmut et al., 1997; Kato et al., 1998; Wakayama et al., 1998; Polejaeva et al., 2000; Chesne et al., 2002; Shin et al., 2002; Zhou et al., 2003). Various possible causes have been suggested for the overall low efficiency (Perry and Wakayama, 2002). Notably, however, it has not yet been clearly demonstrated whether reprogramming after nuclear transfer is necessary for successful cloning. Here we show that reprogramming is essential in nuclear transfer, by comparing the developmental efficiency after the transfer of cumulus cell nuclei with that for zygote nuclei. Nuclear transfers from blastomeres of a series of pre-implantation stages showed further that, as development proceeds, the nuclei progressively lose their potency and become more difficult to reprogram upon their transfer into enucleated MII oocytes. We also found that naturally ovulated oocytes are much better recipients of a nucleus than are superovulated oocytes, which have been used in all the nuclear transfer experiments reported so far. This indicates that cloning efficiency can also be increased to some extent by technical improvements. All these results enable us to distinguish more clearly between the inherent problem of reprogramming and technical problems associated with materials, manipulation, and in vitro culture.     

Birth of mice after nuclear transfer by electrofusion using tail tip cells

Mice have been successfully cloned from cumulus cells, fibroblast cells, embryonic stem cells, and immature Sertoli cells only after direct injection of their nuclei into enucleated oocytes. This technical feature of mouse nuclear transfer differentiates it from that used in domestic species, where electrofusion is routinely used for nuclear transfer. To examine whether nuclear transfer by electrofusion can be applied to somatic cell cloning in the mouse, we electrofused tail tip fibroblast cells with enucleated oocytes, and then assessed the subsequent in vitro and in vivo development of the reconstructed embryos. The rate of successful nuclear transfer (fusion and nuclear formation) was 68.8% (753/1094) and the rate of development into morulae/blastocysts was 40.8% (260/637). After embryo transfer, seven (six males and one female; 2.5% per transfer) normal fetuses were obtained at 17.5-21.5 dpc. These rates of development in vitro and in vivo are not significantly different from those after cloning by injection (44.7% to morulae/blastocysts and 4.8% to term). These results indicate that nuclear transfer by electrofusion is practical for mouse somatic cell cloning and provide an alternative method when injection of donor nuclei into recipient oocytes is technically difficult.     

A simplified method for the reconstruction of fully competent mouse zygotes from adult somatic donor nuclei

Until now, full-term development of mouse embryos reconstructed from somatic nuclei has been convincingly achieved only when a piezoimpact pipette drive unit is used for the injection of a donor nucleus into an enucleated recipient oocyte. Here we describe a simplified method for mouse cloning that requires neither electrofusion nor a piezo device. Efficient rates of enucleation can be achieved without staining the chromosomes of the recipient oocyte and high survival rates are obtained after direct injection of the donor nucleus. Although a low proportion of reconstructed embryos could implant after their transfer into the oviducts of foster mothers (less than 5%), we show that at least some of them can develop into normal young.