Improving promiscuous mammalian cell entry by the baculovirus Autographa californica multiple nuclear polyhedrosis virus

The insect baculovirus AcMNPV (Autographa californica multiple nuclear polyhedrosis virus) enters many mammalian cell lines, prompting its application as a general eukaryotic gene delivery agent, but the basis of entry is poorly understood. For adherent mammalian cells, we show that entry is favoured by low pH and by increasing the available cell-surface area through a transient release from the substratum. Low pH also stimulated baculovirus entry into mammalian cells grown in suspension which, optimally, could reach 90% of the transduced population. The basic loop, residues 268–281, of the viral surface glycoprotein gp64 was required for entry and a tetra mutant with increasing basicity increased entry into a range of mammalian cells. The same mutant failed to plaque in Sf9 cells, instead showing individual cell entry and minimal cell-to-cell spread, consistent with an altered fusion phenotype. Viruses grown in different insect cells showed different mammalian cell entry efficiencies, suggesting that additional factors also govern entry.     

A structural polypeptide of the baculovirus Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus contains O-linked N-acetylglucosamine.

A structural glycopeptide, gp41, derived from the occluded virus of the baculovirus Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus was characterized. The peptide specifically bound wheat germ agglutinin but was not recognized by a panel of seven other lectins. Reactivity with wheat germ agglutinin was eliminated by treatment of gp41 with beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase, indicating that N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) was present as terminal residues. gp41 was efficiently galactosylated by galactosyltransferase only in the presence of Nonidet P-40, suggesting that GlcNAc residues are not exposed on the surface of the virion. Metabolic labelling of gp41 with [3H]GlcNAc occurred in the presence of tunicamycin. The carbohydrate was released by alkaline borohydride treatment and comigrated with N-acetylglucosaminitol in descending paper chromatography. The data indicate that gp41 contains single residues of GlcNAc O glycosidically linked to the polypeptide chain. Evidence suggesting that gp41 is located in the region between the envelope membrane and the capsid (defined here as the tegument) of the occluded virus is also presented.     

Characterization of baculovirus Autographa californica multiple nuclear polyhedrosis virus infection in mammalian cells

The baculovirus Autographa californica multiple nuclear polyhedrosis virus (AcMNPV) is used as a vector in many gene therapy studies. Wild-type AcMNPV infects many mammalian cell types in vitro, but does not replicate. We investigated the dynamics of AcMNPV genomic DNA in infected mammalian cells and used flow cytometric analysis to demonstrate that recombinant baculovirus containing a cytomegalovirus immediate early promoter/enhancer with green fluorescent protein (GFP) expressed high levels of GFP in Huh-7 cells, but not B16, Raw264.7, or YAC-1 cells. The addition of butyrate, a deacetylase inhibitor, markedly enhanced the percentage of GFP-expressing Huh-7 and B16 cells, but not Raw264.7 and YAC-1 cells. The addition of 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine, a DNA methylation inhibitor, had no enhancing effect. Polymerase chain reaction analysis using AcMNPV-gp64-specific primers indicated that AcMNPV infected not only Huh-7 and B16 cells, but also Raw264.7 and YAC-1 cells in vitro. The genomic DNA was detected in Huh-7 and B16 cells 96 h after infection. Genomic AcMNPV DNA in YAC-1 cells was not transported to the nucleus. Luciferase assay indicated that AcMNPV p35 gene mRNA and p35 promoter activity were clearly expressed only in Huh-7 and B16 cells. These results suggest that viral genomic DNA expression is restricted by different host cell factors, such as degradation, deacetylation, and inhibition of nuclear transport, depending on the mammalian cell type.     

Expression of an enhancer-binding protein in insect cells transfected with the Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus IE1 gene.

The baculovirus Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus contains an element known as homologous region 5 (hr5) which is an enhancer of delayed-early viral gene expression. To begin to identify proteins that interact with hr5, DNA-protein interactions were analyzed by using extracts from Spodoptera frugiperda cells and a fragment of DNA containing the left half of the hr5 enhancer. This 252-bp DNA fragment contains two copies of a 30-bp direct repeat (DR30) and two copies of a 24-bp imperfect palindrome contained within a 60-bp direct repeat (DR60). Extracts prepared from normal S. frugiperda cells and cells transfected with pUC8 lacked enhancer-binding proteins. However, when gel shift assays were performed with extracts from cells transfected with a plasmid containing the viral trans-activator IE1 gene, two DNA-protein complexes were formed. Both DNA-protein complexes were specifically inhibited by competition with a 60-bp oligonucleotide corresponding to DR60 but not by competition with a different oligonucleotide corresponding to DR30. Formation of the two complexes did not appear to involve cooperative interactions between binding proteins. When DR60 was used as a probe, a single complex was formed. To measure the enhancer activity of DR60, a reporter plasmid was constructed that contained DR60 cloned upstream of the reporter chloramphenicol acetyltransferase gene under the control of the delayed-early 39K promoter. Transient expression analysis indicated that the oligonucleotide increased expression of this gene 300-fold over the level obtained in the absence of any enhancer sequences.     

Isolation of genotypic variants of Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus.

A nuclear polyhedrosis virus (MNPV) isolated from a lepidopteran (Noctuidae) insect, Autographa californica, was cloned by successive plaque purification using virions containing only one nucleocapsid per envelope as inoculum. The ability to clone the virus by this method was demonstrated by the isolation of nondefective, genotypic variants of the virus with similar but not identical restriction endonuclease fragment patterns. Five distinct variants were identified by genotypic analysis with HindIII, EcoRI, SalI, and Bam HI restriction endonucleases. The characteristic genotype of each variant was maintained upon passage in insect larvae. The isolation of these virus variants demonstrates (i) the heterogeneity of the uncloned virus preparation and (ii) the ability to clone MNPVs by plaque purification of media-derived nonoccluded virions. The A. californica MNPV is being considered for commercial use as a pesticide in the United States, and the cloning of the virus, in view of the heterogeneity detected, may be advisable. The cloning and genotype analyses are also significant with regard to understanding the genetic nature of multiply embedded NPVs (those NPVs containing more than one nucleocapsid per envelope in the occluded form of the virus) and indicate that further genetic analysis of these viruses is possible.     

Host range expansion by recombination of the baculoviruses Bombyx mori nuclear polyhedrosis virus and Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus.

The mechanisms of host specificity of nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPVs) (Baculoviridae) were analyzed after coinfection of Bombyx mori NPV (BmNPV) and one of four distinct groups of Spodoptera litura NPV (SlNPV), including an Autographa californica NPV (AcNPV) variant (S. Maeda, Y. Mukohara, and A. Kondo, J. Gen. Virol. 71:2631-2639, 1990), into various lepidopteran cell lines. Replication of BmNPV in nonpermissive cells (TN-386, SF-21, and CLS-79) was induced by coinfection with AcNPV but not with the other three SlNPV groups. These induced progeny NPVs were plaque purified in BmN cells, which are susceptible to only BmNPV, and characterized. Most of these isolates did not replicate in the cell lines in which they were produced, indicating the existence of a helper function of AcNPV for BmNPV replication in nonpermissive cells. Some of these isolates, however, were able to replicate in cell lines nonpermissive to BmNPV, indicating the appearance of a new virus with wider host specificity. DNA restriction endonuclease analysis showed that the isolates exhibiting wider host range were recombinant viruses between the parents, AcNPV and BmNPV, resulting from various types of crossovers of relatively large areas of their genomes. Expansion of host range was also observed in larvae.     

Virulence of cloned variants of Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus.

The relative virulence of five different genotypic variants of Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus was tested by determining the 50% lethal dose of occluded virus for larvae of Trichoplusia ni. The 50% lethal dose values of uncloned virus and the five cloned genotypic variants ranged between 10 and 21 polyhedra per larva, and no statistically significant differences were observed. Cloning has therefore neither enhanced nor decreased the virulence of this potential microbial pesticide.     

Dynamic phosphorylation of Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus pp31.

Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus (AcMNPV) pp31 is a nuclear phosphoprotein that accumulates in the virogenic stroma, which is the viral replication center in the infected-cell nucleus, binds to DNA, and serves as a late expression factor. Considering that reversible phosphorylation could influence its functional properties, we examined phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of pp31 in detail. Our results showed that pp31 is posttranslationally phosphorylated by both cellular and virus-encoded or -induced kinases. Threonine phosphorylation of pp31 by the virus-specific kinase activity was sensitive to aphidicolin, indicating that it requires late viral gene expression. We also found that pp31 is dephosphorylated by a virus-encoded or -induced phosphatase(s), indicating that phosphorylation of pp31 is a dynamic process. Analysis of pp31 fusion proteins showed that pp31 contains at least three phosphorylation sites. The amino-terminal 100 amino acids of pp31 include at least one serine residue that is phosphorylated by a cellular kinase(s). The C-terminal 67 amino acids of pp31 include at least one threonine residue that is phosphorylated by the virus-specific kinase(s). Finally, this C-terminal domain of pp31 includes at least one serine that is phosphorylated by either a host or viral kinase(s). Interestingly, site-directed mutagenesis of the consensus threonine phosphorylation sites in the C-terminal domain of pp31 failed to prevent threonine phosphorylation, suggesting that the virus-specific kinase is unique and has an undetermined recognition site.     

An RNA virus in Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus preparations: Incidence and influence on baculovirus activity

A small RNA virus infectious to Trichoplusia ni larvae (TRV) was observed as a contaminant of several Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus preparations (AcMNPV). The extent of contamination in various AcMNPV preparations was studied by means of serial enrichment passages through T. ni larvae and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). TRV could not be detected by ELISA in the original preparation of AcMNPV polyhedra prepared in 1968 even after five enrichment passages. Antibody inactivation offers a possible prophylactic method against TRV but temperature inactivation (55°C) does not. Although TRV reduced larval weight, it had little or no effect on bioassays of AcMNPV to T. ni and Heliothis virescens.     

Differential activity of two non-hr origins during replication of the baculovirus Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus genome

The identification of potential baculovirus origins of replication (ori) has involved the generation and characterization of defective interfering particles that contain major genomic deletions yet retain their capability to replicate by testing the replication ability of transiently transfected plasmids carrying viral sequences in infected cells. So far, there has not been any evidence to demonstrate the actual utilization of these putative origins in Autographa californica multinucleocapsid nuclear polyhedrosis virus (AcMNPV) replication. By using the method of origin mapping by competitive PCR, we have obtained quantitative data for the ori activity of the HindIII-K region and the ie-1 promoter sequence in AcMNPV. We also provide evidence for differential activity of the two ori in the context of the viral genome through the replication phase of viral infection. Comparison of the number of molecules representing the HindIII-K and ie-1 origins vis-à-vis the non-ori polH region in a size-selected nascent DNA preparation revealed that the HindIII-K ori is utilized approximately 14 times more efficiently than the ie-1 region during the late phase of infection. HindIII-K also remains the more active ori through the early and middle replication phases. Our results provide in vivo evidence in support of the view that AcMNPV replication involves multiple ori that are activated with vastly different efficiencies during the viral infection cycle.     

Generation and analysis of defective genomes of Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus.

We have generated defective genomes of Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus (AcNPV) by serial, undiluted passage in IPLB-SF-21 cell culture in an attempt to identify potential cis-acting sequences important for AcNPV DNA replication. Viral DNA isolated from some of the 81 serial passages was analyzed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, restriction endonuclease analysis, and Southern blot hybridization. AcNPV-defective genomes appeared to be generated through a series of successively smaller and transiently stable intermediates. Although the defective genomes at passages later than passage 65 (P65) were somewhat heterogeneous in size, those of the majority of the population had a mean size estimated to be 50 kb, or 40% of that of standard virus. Defective genomic DNA at P81 hybridized strongly only to a 2.8-kb region mapping within 85.0 to 87.2 map units of AcNPV DNA (most of HindIII-K and a small part of HindIII-B), suggesting that the majority of P81-defective genomes were missing most of the 128-kb wild-type DNA sequence, except for this small 2.8-kb fragment. Furthermore, our results indicated that the defective genomes of P81 were composed largely of reiterations of this sequence. We suggest that the 2.8-kb DNA segment retained by the defective AcNPV genomes of P81 contains an important cis-acting element(s) sufficient for viral DNA replication in AcNPV-infected cells.     

Identification of baculovirus gene that promotes Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus replication in a nonpermissive insect cell line.

A gene that promotes Autographa californica M nuclear polyhedrosis virus (AcMNPV) replication in IPLB-Ld652Y cells, a cell line that is nonpermissive for AcMNPV, was identified in Lymantria dispar M nuclear polyhedrosis virus (LdMNPV). Cotransfection of AcMNPV DNA and a plasmid carrying the LdMNPV gene into IPLB-Ld652Y cells results in AcMNPV replication. The gene maps between 43.3 and 43.8 map units on the 162-kbp genome of LdMNPV. It comprises a 218-codon open reading frame and encodes a polypeptide with a predicted molecular mass of 25.7 kDa. The predicted polypeptide is glutamic acid and valine rich and negatively charged, with a pI of 4.61. No protein sequence motifs were identified, and no matches with known nucleotide or peptide sequences were found in the AcMNPV genome or database searches that suggest how this gene might function. A recombinant AcMNPV bearing the LdMNPV gene overcomes a block in protein synthesis observed in AcMNPV-infected IPLB-Ld652Y cells. Using Southern blotting techniques, we were unable to identify a homolog in Orgyia pseudotsugata M nuclear polyhedrosis virus, a baculovirus that is routinely propagated in IPLB-Ld652Y cells. This suggests that the LdMNPV host range is unique among the baculoviruses studied to date. We named this gene hrf-1 (for host range factor 1).     

A cysteine protease encoded by the baculovirus Bombyx mori nuclear polyhedrosis virus.

Sequence analysis of the BamHI F fragment of the genome of Bombyx mori nuclear polyhedrosis virus (BmNPV) revealed an open reading frame whose deduced amino acid sequence had homology to those of cysteine proteases of the papain superfamily. The putative cysteine protease sequence (BmNPV-CP) was 323 amino acids long and showed 35% identity to a cysteine proteinase precursor from Trypanosoma brucei. Of 36 residues conserved among cathepsins B, H, L, and S and papain, 31 were identical in BmNPV-CP. In order to determine the activity and function of the putative cysteine protease, a BmNPV mutant (BmCysPD) was constructed by homologous recombination of the protease gene with a beta-galactosidase gene cassette. BmCysPD-infected BmN cell extracts were significantly reduced in acid protease activity compared with wild-type virus-infected cell extracts. The cysteine protease inhibitor E-64 [trans-epoxysuccinylleucylamido-(4-guanidino)butane] inhibited wild-type virus-expressed protease activity. Deletion of the cysteine protease gene had no significant effect on viral growth or polyhedron production in BmN cells, indicating that the cysteine protease was not essential for viral replication in vitro. However, B. mori larvae infected with BmCysPD showed symptoms different from those of wild-type BmNPV-infected larvae, e.g., less degradation of the body, including fat body cells, white body surface color due presumably to undegraded epidermal cells, and an increase in the number of polyhedra released into the hemolymph. This is the first report of (i) a virus-encoded protease with activity on general substrates and (ii) evidence that a virus-encoded protease may play a role in degradation of infected larvae to facilitate horizontal transmission of the virus.     

Site-specific mutagenesis of the 35-kilodalton protein gene encoded by Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus: cell line-specific effects on virus replication.

The gene encoding the 35-kDa protein (35k gene) located within the EcoRI-S genome fragment of Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus (AcMNPV) is transcribed early in infection. To examine its function(s) with respect to virus multiplication, we introduced specific mutations of this early gene into the AcMNPV genome. In Spodoptera frugiperda (SF21) culture, deletion of the 35K gene reduced yields of extracellular, budded virus from 200- to 15,000-fold, depending on input multiplicity. Mutant replication was characterized by dramatically diminished levels of late and very late (occlusion-specific) virus gene expression and premature cell lysis. In contrast, 35K gene inactivation had no effect on virus growth in cultured Trichoplusia ni (TN368) cells. Insertion of the 35K gene and its promoter at an alternate site (polyhedrin locus) restored virus replication to wild-type levels in SF21 culture. Subsequent insertion of 4 bp after codon 81 generated a frameshift mutant that exhibited a virus phenotype indistinguishable from that of 35K deletion mutants and demonstrated that the 35K gene product (p35) was required for wild-type replication in SF21 cells. Mutagenesis also indicated that the C terminus of p35, including the last 12 residues, was required for function. In complementation assays, wild-type virus bearing a functional 35K gene allele stimulated all aspects of 35K null mutant replication and suppressed early cell lysis. These findings indicated that p35 is a trans-dominant factor that facilitates AcMNPV growth in a cell line-specific manner.