Maurocalcine and domain A of the II-III loop of the dihydropyridine receptor Cav 1.1 subunit share common binding sites on the skeletal ryanodine receptor

Maurocalcine is a scorpion venom toxin of 33 residues that bears a striking resemblance to the domain A of the dihydropyridine voltage-dependent calcium channel type 1.1 (Cav1.1) subunit. This domain belongs to the II-III loop of Cav1.1, which is implicated in excitation-contraction coupling. Besides the structural homology, maurocalcine also modulates RyR1 channel activity in a manner akin to a synthetic peptide of domain A. Because of these similarities, we hypothesized that maurocalcine and domain A may bind onto an identical region(s) of RyR1. Using a set of RyR1 fragments, we demonstrate that peptide A and maurocalcine bind onto two discrete RyR1 regions: fragments 3 and 7 encompassing residues 1021-1631 and 3201-3661, respectively. The binding onto fragment 7 is of greater importance and was thus further investigated. We found that the amino acid region 3351-3507 of RyR1 (fragment 7.2) is sufficient for these interactions. Proof that peptide A and maurocalcine bind onto the same site is provided by competition experiments in which binding of fragment 7.2 to peptide A is inhibited by preincubation with maurocalcine. Moreover, when expressed in COS-7 cells, RyR1 carrying a deletion of fragment 7 shows a loss of interaction with both peptide A and maurocalcine. At the functional level, this deletion abolishes the maurocalcine induced stimulation of [3H]ryanodine binding onto microsomes of transfected COS-7 cells without affecting the caffeine and ATP responses.     

An nmr conformational analysis of a synthetic peptide Cn2(1-15)NH2-S-S-acetyl-Cn2(52-66)NH2 from the New World Centruroides noxius 2 (Cn2) scorpion toxin: comparison of the structure with those of the Centruroides scorpion toxins

The solution structure of a synthetic peptide, Cn2(1-15)NH2-S-S-acetyl-Cn2(52-66)NH2 from toxin 2 (Cn2) of the New World scorpion Centruroides noxius was determined using nmr and molecular dynamics calculations. The peptide has no significant secondary structure such as an alpha-helix or a beta-sheet, yet it has a fixed conformation for the first chain. The backbone secondary structure involving residues 6-12 in this peptide shows an excellent overlap with the structures of natural neurotoxins from Centruroides sculpturatus Ewing. Residues 6-9 form a distorted type I beta-turn and residues 10-12 form a gamma-turn. As residues 7-10 in the Centruroides toxins correspond to one of the regions of highest sequence variability, it may account for the species specificity and/or selectivity of toxic action. The conformation of this region evidently plays an important role in receptor recognition and in binding to the neutralizing monoclonal antibody BCF2 raised against the intact toxin.     

Two-dimensional 1H nuclear magnetic resonance study of AaH IT, an anti-insect toxin from the scorpion Androctonus australis Hector. Sequential resonance assignments and folding of the polypeptide chain

Sequence-specific nuclear magnetic resonance assignments for the polypeptide backbone and for most of the amino acid side-chain protons, as well as the general folding of AaH IT, are described. AaH IT is a neurotoxin purified from the venom of the scorpion Androctonus australis Hector and is specifically active on the insect nervous system. The secondary structure and the hydrogen-bonding patterns in the regular secondary structure elements are deduced from nuclear Overhauser effects and the sequence locations of the slowly exchanging amide protons. The backbone folding is determined by distance geometry calculations with the DISMAN program. The regular secondary structure includes two and a half turns of alpha-helix running from residues 21 to 30 and a three-stranded antiparallel beta-sheet including peptides 3-5, 34-38, and 41-46. Two tight turns are present, one connecting the end of the alpha-helix to an external strand of the beta-sheet, i.e., turn 31-34, and another connecting this same strand to the central one, i.e., turn 38-41. These structure elements are very similar to the secondary structure reported in single crystals for either variant 3 from the scorpion Centruroides sculpturatus Ewing (CsE V3) or toxin II from the scorpion A. australis Hector (AaH II). The differences in the specificity of these related proteins, which are able to discriminate between mammalian and insect voltage-dependent sodium channels of excitable tissues, are most probably brought about by the position of the C-terminal peptide with regard to a hydrophobic surface common to all scorpion toxins examined thus far. This surface is made of an aromatic cluster that is surrounded by long hydrophobic side-chain residues, as well as the loops protruding out of it. Thus, the interaction of a given scorpion toxin with its receptor might well be governed by the presence of this solvent-exposed hydrophobic surface, whereas adjacent areas modulate the specificity of the interaction.     

Solution structure of BmP08, a novel short-chain scorpion toxin from Buthus martensi Karsch

A novel short-chain scorpion toxin BmP08 was purified from the venom of the Chinese scorpion Buthus martensi Karsch by a combination of gel-filtration, ion exchange, and reversed-phase chromatography. The primary sequence of BmP08 was determined using the tandem MS/MS technique and Edman degradation, as well as results of NMR sequential assignments. It is composed of 31 amino acid residues including six cysteine residues and shares less than 25% sequence identity with the known alpha-KTx toxins. BmP08 shows no inhibitory activity on all tested voltage-dependent and Ca(2+)-activated potassium channels. The 3D-structure of BmP08 has been determined by 2D-NMR spectroscopy and molecular modeling techniques. This toxin adopts a common alpha/beta-motif, but shows a distinctive local conformation and features a 3(10)-helix and a shorter beta-sheet. The unique structure is closely related to the distinct primary sequence of the toxin, especially to the novel arrangement of S-S linkages in the molecule, in which two disulfide bridges (C(i)-C(j) and C(i+3)-C(j+3)) link covalently the 3(10)-helix with one strand of the beta-sheet structure. The electrostatic potential surface analysis of the toxin reveals salt bridges and hydrogen bonds between the basic residues and negatively charged residues nearby in BmP08, which may be unfavorable for its binding with the known voltage-dependent and Ca(2+)-activated potassium channels. Thus, finding the target for this toxin should be an interesting task in the future.     

Crystal structure of a highly acidic neurotoxin from scorpion Buthus tamulus at 2.2A resolution reveals novel structural features

The crystal structure of a highly acidic neurotoxin from the scorpion Buthus tamulus has been determined at 2.2A resolution. The amino acid sequence determination shows that the polypeptide chain has 64 amino acid residues. The pI measurement gave a value of 4.3 which is one of the lowest pI values reported so far for a scorpion toxin. As observed in other alpha-toxins, it contains four disulphide bridges, Cys12-Cys63, Cys16-Cys36, Cys22-Cys46, and Cys26-Cys48. The crystal structure reveals the presence of two crystallographically independent molecules in the asymmetric unit. The conformations of two molecules are identical with an r.m.s. value of 0.3A for their C(alpha) tracings. The overall fold of the toxin is very similar to other scorpion alpha-toxins. It is a betaalphabetabeta protein. The beta-sheet involves residues Glu2-Ile6 (strand beta1), Asp32-Trp39 (strand beta3) and Val45-Val55 (strand beta4). The single alpha-helix formed is by residues Asn19-Asp28 (alpha2). The structure shows a trans peptide bond between residues 9 and 10 in the five-membered reverse turn Asp8-Cys12. This suggests that this toxin belongs to classical alpha-toxin subfamily. The surface features of the present toxin are highly characteristic, the first (A-site) has residues, Phe18, Trp38 and Trp39 that protrude outwardly presumably to interact with its receptor. There is another novel face (N-site) of this neurotoxin that contains several negatively charged residues such as, Glu2, Asp3, Asp32, Glu49 and Asp50 which are clustered in a small region of the toxin structure. On yet another face (P-site) in a triangular arrangement, with respect to the above two faces there are several positively charged residues, Arg58, Lys62 and Arg64 that also protrude outwardly for a potentially potent interaction with other molecules. This toxin with three strong features appears to be one of the most toxic molecules reported so far. In this sense, it may be a new subclass of neurotoxins with the largest number of hot spots.     

Solution structure of BmKK4, the first member of subfamily alpha-KTx 17 of scorpion toxins

BmKK4 is a 30 amino acid peptide purified from the venom of the Chinese scorpion Buthus martensi Karsch. It has been classified as the first member of scorpion toxin subfamily alpha-KTx 17. The 3D structure of BmKK4 in solution has been determined by 2D NMR spectroscopy. This toxin adopts a common alpha/beta-motif, but shows a distinctive local conformation. The most novel feature is that the regular arrangements of the side chains of the residues involved in the beta-sheet of BmKK4 are distorted by a classic beta-bulge structure, which involves two residues (Asp18 and Arg19) in the first strand opposite a single residue (Tyr26) in the second strand. The bulge produces two main changes in the structure of the antiparallel beta-sheet: (1) It disrupts the normal alteration of the side chain direction; the side chain of Asp18 turns over to form a salt bridge with that of Arg19. (2) It accentuates the twist of the sheet, and alters the direction of the antiparallel beta-sheet. The unusual structural feature of the toxin is attributed to the shorter peptide segment (Leu15-Arg19) between the third and fourth Cys residues and two unique residues (Asp18 and Arg19) at the position preceding the fourth Cys. In addition, the lower affinity of the peptide for the Kv channel is correlated to the structural features: residue Arg19 instead of a Lys residue at the critical position for binding and the salt bridge formed between residues Arg19 and Asp18.     

NMR studies of toxin III from the sea anemone Radianthus paumotensis and comparison of its secondary structure with related toxins

Nearly complete assignments of the proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrum of the polypeptide toxin III from the sea anemone Radianthus paumotensis (RP) are presented. The secondary structures of the related toxins RP II and RP III are described and are compared with each other and with another related toxin ATX Ia from Anemonia sulcata [Widmer, H., Wagner, G., Schweitz, H., Lazdunski, M., & Wüthrich, K. (1988) Eur. J. Biochem. 171, 177-192]. All of these proteins contain a highly twisted four-strand antiparallel beta-sheet core connected by loops of irregular structure. From the work done with AP-A from Anthopleura xanthogrammica [Gooley, P. R., & Norton, R. S. (1986) Biochemistry 25, 2349-2356], it is clear that this homologous toxin also has the same basic core. Some small differences are seen in the structures of these toxins, particularly in the position of the N-terminal residues that form one of the outside strands of the beta-sheet. In addition, the R. paumotensis toxins are two residues longer, extending the third strand of sheet containing the C-terminal residues. A comparison of chemical shifts for assigned residues is also presented, in general supporting the similarity of structure among these proteins.     

Porcine pancreatic phospholipase A2: sequence-specific 1H and 15N NMR assignments and secondary structure

The solution structure of porcine pancreatic phospholipase A2 (124 residues, 14 kDa) has been studied by two-dimensional homonuclear 1H and two- and three-dimensional heteronuclear 15N-1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Backbone assignments were made for 117 of the 124 amino acids. Short-range nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE) data show three alpha-helices from residues 1-13, 40-58, and 90-109, an antiparallel beta-sheet for residues 74-85, and a small antiparallel beta-sheet between residues 25-26 and 115-116. A 15N-1H heteronuclear multiple-quantum correlation experiment was used to monitor amide proton exchange over a period of 22 h. In total, 61 amide protons showed slow or intermediate exchange, 46 of which are located in the three large helices. Helix 90-109 was found to be considerably more stable than the other helices. For the beta-sheets, four hydrogen bonds could be identified. The secondary structure of porcine PLA in solution, as deduced from NMR, is basically the same as the structure of porcine PLA in the crystalline state. Differences were found in the following regions, however. Residues 1-6 in the first alpha-helix are less structured in solution than in the crystal structure. Whereas in the crystal structure residues 24-29 are involved both in a beta-sheet with residues 115-117 and in a hairpin turn, the expected hydrogen bonds between residues 24-117 and 25-29 do not show slow exchange behavior. This and the absence of several expected NOEs imply that this region has a less well defined structure in solution. Finally, the hydrogen bond between residues 78-81, which is part of a beta-sheet, does not show slow exchange behavior.     

Solution structure of BmKTX, a K+ blocker toxin from the Chinese scorpion Buthus Martensi

BmKTX is a toxin recently purified from the venom of Buthus Martensi, which belongs to the kaliotoxin family. We have determined its solution structure by use of conventional two-dimensional NMR techniques followed by distance-geometry and energy minimization. The calculated structure is composed of a short alpha-helix (residues 14 to 20) connected by a tight turn to a two-stranded antiparallel beta-sheet (sequences 25-27 and 32-34). The beta-turn connecting these strands belongs to type I. The N-terminal segment (sequence 1 to 8) runs parallel to the beta-sheet although it cannot be considered as a third strand. Comparison of the conformation of BmKTX and toxins of the kaliotoxin family clearly demonstrates that they are highly related. Therefore, analysis of the residues belonging to the interacting surface of those toxins allows us to propose a functional map of BmKTX slightly different from the one of KTX and AgTX2, which may explain the variations in affinities of these toxins towards the Kv1.3 channels.     

Solution structure of BmKK2, a new potassium channel blocker from the venom of chinese scorpion Buthus martensi Karsch

A natural K+ channel blocker, BmKK2 (a member of scorpion toxin subfamily alpha-KTx 14), which is composed of 31 amino acid residues and purified from the venom of the Chinese scorpion Buthus martensi Karsch, was characterized using whole-cell patch-clamp recording in rat hippocampal neurons. The three dimensional structure of BmKK2 was determined with two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy and molecular modelling techniques. In solution this toxin adopted a common alpha/beta-motif, but showed distinct local conformation in the loop between alpha-helix and beta-sheet in comparison with typical short-chain scorpion toxins (e.g., CTX and NTX). Also, the alpha helix is shorter and the beta-sheet element is smaller (each strand consisted only two residues). The unusual structural feature of BmKK2 was attributed to the shorter loop between the alpha-helix and beta-sheet and the presence of two consecutive Pro residues at position 21 and 22 in the loop. Moreover, two models of BmKK2/hKv1.3 channel and BmKK2/rSK2 channel complexes were simulated with docking calculations. The results demonstrated the existence of a alpha-mode binding between the toxin and the channels. The model of BmKK2/rSK2 channel complex exhibited favorable contacts both in electrostatic and hydrophobic, including a network of five hydrogen bonds and bigger interface containing seven pairs of inter-residue interactions. In contrast, the model of BmKK2/hKv1.3 channel complex, containing only three pairs of inter-residue interactions, exhibited poor contacts and smaller interface. The results well explained its lower activity towards Kv channel, and predicted that it may prefer a type of SK channel with a narrower entryway as its specific receptor.     

Nuclear magnetic resonance solution structure of the alpha-neurotoxin from the black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis).

The three-dimensional structure in solution of the alpha-neurotoxin from the black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis) has been determined by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. A high quality structure for this 60-residue protein was obtained from 656 NOE distance constraints and 143 dihedral angle constraints, using the distance geometry program DIANA for the structure calculation and AMBER for restrained energy minimization. For a group of 20 conformers used to represent the solution structure, the average root-mean-square deviation value calculated for the polypeptide backbone heavy atoms relative to the mean structure was 0.45 A. The protein consists of a core region from which three finger-like loops extend outwards. It includes a short, two-stranded antiparallel beta-sheet of residues 1-5 and 13-17, a three-stranded antiparallel beta-sheet involving residues 23-31, 34-42 and 51-55, and four disulfide bridges in the core region. There is also extensive non-regular hydrogen bonding between the carboxy-terminal tail of the polypeptide chain and the rest of the core region. Comparison with the crystal structure of erabutoxin-b indicates that the structure of alpha-neurotoxin is quite similar to other neurotoxin structures, but that local structural differences are seen in regions thought to be important for binding of neurotoxins to the acetylcholine receptor. For two regions of the alpha-neurotoxin structure there is evidence for an equilibrium between multiple conformations, which might be related to conformational rearrangements upon binding to the receptor. Overall, the alpha-neurotoxin presents itself as a protein with a stable core and flexible surface areas that interact with the acetylcholine receptor in such a way that high affinity binding is achieved by conformational rearrangements of the deformable regions of the neurotoxin structure.     

NMR solution structure and receptor peptide binding of the CC chemokine eotaxin-2

The human CC chemokine eotaxin-2 is a specific agonist for the chemokine receptor CCR3 and may play a role in the recruitment of eosinophils in allergic diseases and parasitic infections. We report the solution structure of eotaxin-2 determined using heteronuclear and triple resonance NMR methods. A family of 20 structures was calculated by hybrid distance geometry-simulated annealing from 854 NOE distance restraints, 48 dihedral angle restraints, and 12 hydrogen bond restraints. The structure of eotaxin-2 (73 amino acid residues) consists of a helical turn (residues 17-20) followed by a 3-stranded antiparallel beta-sheet (residues 22-26, 37-41, and 44-49) and an alpha-helix (residues 54-66). The N-loop (residues 9-16) is packed against both the sheet and the helix with the two conserved disulfide bonds tethering the N-terminal/N-loop region to the beta-sheet. The average backbone and heavy atom rmsd values of the 20 structures (residues 7-66) are 0.52 and 1.13 A, respectively. A linear peptide corresponding to the N-terminal region of CCR3 binds to eotaxin-2, inducing concentration-dependent chemical shift changes or line broadening of many residues. The distribution of these residues suggests that the peptide binds into an extended groove located at the interface between the N-loop and the beta2-beta3 hairpin. The receptor peptide may also interact with the N-terminus of the chemokine and part of the alpha-helix. Comparison of the eotaxin-2 structure with those of related chemokines indicates several structural features that may contribute to receptor specificity.     

Solution structure of Ptu1, a toxin from the assassin bug Peirates turpis that blocks the voltage-sensitive calcium channel N-type.

Ptu1 is a toxin from the assassin bug Peirates turpis which has been demonstrated to bind reversibly the N-type calcium channels and to have lower affinity than the omega-conotoxin MVIIA. We have determined the solution structure of Ptu1 by use of conventional two-dimensional NMR techniques followed by distance-geometry and molecular dynamics. The calculated structure of Ptu1 belongs to the inhibitory cystin knot structural family (ICK) that consists of a compact disulfide-bonded core from which four loops emerge. Analysis of the 25 converged solutions indicates that the molecular structure of Ptu1 contains a 2-stranded antiparallel beta-sheet (residues 24-27 and 31-34) as the only secondary structure. The loop 2 that has been described to be critical for the binding of the toxin on the channel is similar in Ptu1 and MVIIA. In this loop, the critical residue, Tyr13, in MVIIA is retrieved in Ptu1 as Phe13, but the presence of an acidic residue (Asp16) in Ptu1 could disturb the binding of Ptu1 on the channel and could explain the lower affinity of Ptu1 toward the N-type calcium channel compared to the one of MVIIA. Analysis of the electrostatic charge's repartition gives some insights about the importance of the basic residues, which could interact with acidic residues of the channel and then provide a stabilization of the toxin on the channel.     

Solution structure of the potassium channel inhibitor agitoxin 2: caliper for probing channel geometry.

The structure of the potassium channel blocker agitoxin 2 was solved by solution NMR methods. The structure consists of a triple-stranded antiparallel beta-sheet and a single helix covering one face of the beta-sheet. The cysteine side chains connecting the beta-sheet and the helix form the core of the molecule. One edge of the beta-sheet and the adjacent face of the helix form the interface with the Shaker K+ channel. The fold of agitoxin is homologous to the previously determined folds of scorpion venom toxins. However, agitoxin 2 differs significantly from the other channel blockers in the specificity of its interactions. This study was thus focused on a precise characterization of the surface residues at the face of the protein interacting with the Shaker K+ channel. The rigid toxin molecule can be used to estimate dimensions of the potassium channel. Surface-exposed residues, Arg24, Lys27, and Arg31 of the beta-sheet, have been identified from mutagenesis studies as functionally important for blocking the Shaker K+ channel. The sequential and spatial locations of Arg24 and Arg31 are not conserved among the homologous toxins. Knowledge on the details of the channel-binding sites of agitoxin 2 formed a basis for site-directed mutagenesis studies of the toxin and the K+ channel sequences. Observed interactions between mutated toxin and channel are being used to elucidate the channel structure and mechanisms of channel-toxin interactions.     

Transduction of the scorpion toxin maurocalcine into cells. Evidence that the toxin crosses the plasma membrane

Maurocalcine (MCa) is a 33-amino-acid residue peptide toxin isolated from the scorpion Scorpio maurus palmatus. External application of MCa to cultured myotubes is known to produce Ca2+ release from intracellular stores. MCa binds directly to the skeletal muscle isoform of the ryanodine receptor, an intracellular channel target of the endoplasmic reticulum, and induces long lasting channel openings in a mode of smaller conductance. Here we investigated the way MCa proceeds to cross biological membranes to reach its target. A biotinylated derivative of MCa was produced (MCa(b)) and complexed with a fluorescent indicator (streptavidine-cyanine 3) to follow the cell penetration of the toxin. The toxin complex efficiently penetrated into various cell types without requiring metabolic energy (low temperature) or implicating an endocytosis mechanism. MCa appeared to share the same features as the so-called cell-penetrating peptides. Our results provide evidence that MCa has the ability to act as a molecular carrier and to cross cell membranes in a rapid manner (1-2 min), making this toxin the first demonstrated example of a scorpion toxin that translocates into cells.     

New binding site on common molecular scaffold provides HERG channel specificity of scorpion toxin BeKm-1

The scorpion toxin BeKm-1 is unique among a variety of known short scorpion toxins affecting potassium channels in its selective action on ether-a-go-go-related gene (ERG)-type channels. BeKm-1 shares the common molecular scaffold with other short scorpion toxins. The toxin spatial structure resolved by NMR consists of a short alpha-helix and a triple-stranded antiparallel beta-sheet. By toxin mutagenesis study we identified the residues that are important for the binding of BeKm-1 to the human ERG K+ (HERG) channel. The most critical residues (Tyr-11, Lys-18, Arg-20, Lys-23) are located in the alpha-helix and following loop whereas the "traditional" functional site of other short scorpion toxins is formed by residues from the beta-sheet. Thus the unique location of the binding site of BeKm-1 provides its specificity toward the HERG channel.     

Solution structure of PAFP-S: a new knottin-type antifungal peptide from the seeds of Phytolacca americana

The three-dimensional solution structure of PAFP-S, an antifungal peptide extracted from the seeds of Phytolacca americana, was determined using 1H NMR spectroscopy. This cationic peptide contains 38 amino acid residues. Its structure was determined from 302 distance restraints and 36 dihedral restraints derived from NOEs and coupling constants. The peptide has six cysteines involved in three disulfide bonds. The previously unassigned parings have now been determined from NMR data. The solution structure of PAFP-S is presented as a set of 20 structures using ab initio dynamic simulated annealing, with an average RMS deviation of 1.68 A for the backbone heavy atoms and 2.19 A for all heavy atoms, respectively. For the well-defined triple-stranded beta-sheet involving residues 8-10, 23-27, and 32-36, the corresponding values were 0.39 and 1.25 A. The global fold involves a cystine-knotted three-stranded antiparallel beta-sheet (residues 8-10, 23-27, 32-36), a flexible loop (residues 14-19), and four beta-reverse turns (residues 4-8, 11-14, 19-22, 28-32). This structure features all the characteristics of the knottin fold. It is the first structural model of an antifungal peptide that adopts a knottin-type structure. PAFP-S has an extended hydrophobic surface comprised of residues Tyr23, Phe25, Ile27, Tyr32, and Val34. The side chains of these residues are well-defined in the NMR structure. Several hydrophilic and positively charged residues (Arg9, Arg38, and Lys36) surround the hydrophobic surface, giving PAFP-S an amphiphilic character which would be the main structural basis of its biological function.     

A common structural motif incorporating a cystine knot and a triple-stranded beta-sheet in toxic and inhibitory polypeptides.

A common structural motif consisting of a cystine knot and a small triple-stranded beta-sheet has been defined from comparison of the 3-dimensional structures of the polypeptides omega-conotoxin GVIA (Conus geographus), kalata BI (Oldenlandia affinis DC), and CMTI-I (Curcurbita maxima). These 3 polypeptides have diverse biological activities and negligible amino acid sequence identity, but each contains 3 disulfide bonds that give rise to a cystine knot. This knot consists of a ring formed by the first 2 bonds (1-4 and 2-5) and the intervening polypeptide backbone, through which the third disulfide (3-6) passes. The other component of this motif is a triple-stranded, anti-parallel beta-sheet containing a minimum of 10 residues, XXC2, XC5X, XXC6X (where the numbers on the half-cysteine residues refer to their positions in the disulfide pattern). The presence in these polypeptides of both the cysteine knot and antiparallel beta-sheet suggests that both structural features are required for the stability of the motif. This structural motif is also present in other protease inhibitors and a spider toxin. It appears to be one of the smallest stable globular domains found in proteins and is commonly used in toxins and inhibitors that act by blocking the function of larger protein receptors such as ion channels or proteases.     

The structure of Buthus eupeus neurotoxin M9 in a solution studied by 1H-NMR spectroscopy

Neurotoxin M9 isolated from the venom of Central Asian scorpion Buthus eupeus (66 amino acid residues, 4 disulfide bridges) has two slowly exchangeable conformations at the acidic pH. 2D-1H-NMR spectroscopy has been used to determine the polypeptide backbone foiding in the conformer that dominates under physiological conditions. The conformer contains the right alpha-helix (residues 22-31) and the antiparallel beta-sheet, which consists of the three strands (residues 1-5, 46-52, 35-40). All five Xxx-Pro bonds are in the trans configuration. Comparison of the obtained data with the crystal structure of the homologous scorpion toxin v-3 Centruroides sculpturatus (65 residues) and the solution spatial structure of the "short" type insectotoxin I5A Buthus eupeus (35 residues) shows close similarity in the first case and similarity of the types and mutual disposition of the regular secondary structure elements in the second case.     

Structural determinants for activation or inhibition of ryanodine receptors by basic residues in the dihydropyridine receptor II-III loop

The structures of peptide A, and six other 7-20 amino acid peptides corresponding to sequences in the A region (Thr671- Leu690) of the skeletal muscle dihydropyridine receptor II-III loop have been examined, and are correlated with the ability of the peptides to activate or inhibit skeletal ryanodine receptor calcium release channels. The peptides adopted either random coil or nascent helix-like structures, which depended upon the polarity of the terminal residues as well as the presence and ionisation state of two glutamate residues. Enhanced activation of Ca2+ release from sarcoplasmic reticulum, and activation of current flow through single ryanodine receptor channels (at -40 mV), was seen with peptides containing the basic residues 681Arg Lys Arg Arg Lys685, and was strongest when the residues were a part of an alpha-helix. Inhibition of channels (at +40 mV) was also seen with peptides containing the five positively charged residues, but was not enhanced in helical peptides. These results confirm the hypothesis that activation of ryanodine receptor channels by the II-III loop peptides requires both the basic residues and their participation in helical structure, and show for the first time that inhibition requires the basic residues, but is not structure-dependent. These findings imply that activation and inhibition result from peptide binding to separate sites on the ryanodine receptor.