Distribution of blood groups among indians in South America. VI. In Paraguay

This paper on the distribution of hereditary factors in the blood of Indians in South America, reports the results of tests made on samples procured from Paraguayan Indians. Specimens from putatively full-blood persons were obtained from the following tribes: 88 Chamacoco, 36 Moro, 85 Chulupi, 207 Lengua, 100 Toba, 20 Yam Lengua, and 51 Guayaki, These 587 Samples were tested for factors in the A-B-O, M-N-S-s, P. Rh-Hr, Lutheran, Kell-Cellano, Lewis, Duffy, Kidd, and Diego systems. Serum samples were tested for haptoglobins and transferrins. He molysates, prepared from whole blood, were tested for hemoglobin types. The results are presented on appropriate tables as number and per cent of phenotypes for the various blood group antigens and their calculated allele frequencies. Locations of the populations from which blood samples were procured are listed on the tables and shown on a map (fig. 1). Of the 587 samples all except two Chamacoco belonged to group O. High frequencies are reported generally for M, s, P, R¹ (CDe), R² (cDE), k (100%) and Fy alleles in Paraguayn Indians. Low frequencies were generally reported for N, S, r (cde) and R° (cDe) alleles. There was a wide variation in frequencies for Di, Jk, and haptoglobin Hp¹. All tested for transferrins were classified as Tf C and all contained hemoglobin (A) as a major component. The following antigens were completely absent: Mi^a, Vw, p, P^k, r^y (CdE), K, and Le¹. Most notable is the unusual distribution of hereditary blood antigens among the Guayaki and Moro. The Guayaki had 100% P₁ and Fy^a; they were higher in R° (cDe), R¹ (CDe), and Jk^a; and lower in R² (cDE) and Hp¹ genes than other Indians; and Di was absent. The Guayaki differed from the other Indians also in having fair skin. The Moro were lower in the P¹ and Jk gene frequencies than is usually found in Amerinds, and the Di gene was absent. The Chamacoco also had an exceptionally low frequency for the P¹ gene (0.261).     

Distribution of hereditary blood groups among Indians in South America. I. In Ecuador

Blood specimens were procured from 658 Quechua, 36 Colorado, 233 Jivaro, 244 Cayapa, and 48 Secoya Indians of Ecuador. These were examined for antigens in the A-B-O, M-N-S-s, P, Rh-Hr, Lutheran, K-k, Lewis, Duffy and Kidd systems and for Diego (Di^a), Wright (Wr^a), and Berrens (Be^a) agglutinogens as well. Hemolystes were prepared and studied for hemoglobin types and the serum samples were tested for haptoglobins and transfserrins. Gene frequencies are high for O, M, s, R¹, (CDe), R² (cDE), Lu^b, k, Kp^b, Le^b and Fy^a; and low or absent for A, B, N, S, Mi^a, Vw, Mt^a, R⁰ (cDe), V (ce^s), Lu^a, K, Kp^a, Le^a, Fy^b, Js^a, Wr^a and Be^a. The Diego (Di^a) gene is present but its frequency varies greatly from tribe to tribe. Gene frequency Hp¹ is well within the range previously reported for Indians in Middle America excepting the Colorado in which population the frequency of 0.889 is unusually high. All 723 serum specimens tested for transferrins were C or CD. No D or BC types were found. All Ecuadorian Indian bloods tested electrophoretically contained only hemoglobin (A) as a major component.     

Distribution of hereditary blood groups among Indians in South America. 3. In Bolivia

Blood samples were procured from the following populations of putatively pure Indians in Bolivia: 503 Aymará from the Altiplano and Yungas, 30 Chama, 11 Tacana, 14 Chácobo, 109 Itonama, 67 Moré, and 27 Sirionó from the Beni and lowland rainforest. Erythrocytes from these 761 specimens were tested for antigens in the A-B-O, M-N-S-s, P, Rh-Hr, Lutheran, Kell-Cellano, Lewis, Duffy, Kidd, and Diego systems, and for the Wright agglutinogen. The serum samples were tested for haptoglobins and transferrins; and hemolysates were prepared and examined for hemoglobin types. Results of these tests are presented as phenotypes and calculated gene frequencies on appropriate tables. A map is included to show the locations of the populations from which blood samples were obtained. Frequencies are generally high for the O gene, it being the only gene of the ABO system which appears in the Chama, Chácobo and Sirionó. The presence of A₁, A₂ or B genes in the Bolivian Indians is interpreted as being most probably of caucasoid introduction. Excepting the Sirionó the frequencies are high for M and low for N genes as is usual for Amerinds, the M gene being the only one detected in the Chama. The s gene frequency in high and the S low except in the small isolated Chácobo population in which S gene frequency is extremely high for Amerinds. Inbreeding and perhaps genetic drift in this small isolate may account for this aberrancy from normal. The Bolivian specimens presented the high frequencies for genes R¹ (CDe) and R² (cDE) and the low frequencies for genes r (cde) and R⁰ (cDe) usually observed in American Indians. The Lu^a factor was observed in only one of 120 Aymará at Santa Fe in the Yungas. The Lu^a factor, when observed in Amerinds, suggests foreign introduction of the responsible gene. Fy^a gene frequencies are consistently high and excepting the Aymará and Chama so also are Jk^a frequencies. Frequencies for the Diego (Di^a) factor vary from 3.70% in 27 Sirionó to 73.33% in 30 Chama. No K, Mi^a, Vw or Wr^a antigens were demonstrable in the Indian blood samples from Bolivia. Phenotypes and calculated gene frequencies for haptoglobins and transferrins are presented. All Bolivian Indian bloods tested electrophoretically contained only hemoglobin (A) as a major component.     

Distribution of hereditary blood groups among Indians in South America. II. In Peru

Blood specimens were procured from the following putatively pure Indians of the Peruvian rain forest: 90 Piro and 89 Campa on the Urubamba and Tambo rivers, 142 Shipibo and 14 Isconahua on the Rio Ucayali near Yarinacocha, 151 Aguaruna at Santa Maria de Nieva, where the Marañon and Nieva rivers join, and from 122 Ticuna and 9 Yagua near the Brazilian border on the Amazon. Specimens from highland Indians were obtained from 93 Aymará and 181 Quechua at Puno and environs. These 891 specimens were tested for antigens in the A-B-O, M-N-S-s, P, Rh-Hr, Lutheran, K-k, Lewis, Duffy, Kidd, and Diego (Di^a) systems, and for the Wright (Wr^a) aglutinogen. Serum samples from these bloods were tested for haptoglobins and transferrins and hemolysates were prepared and examined for hemoglobin types. Results for these tests with claculated gene frequencies are presented, for the most part, on appropriate tables. A map is included to show the locations of the populations from which blood samples were procured. As in South American Indians generally, frequencies are high for the O gene it being the only gene of the ABO system which appears in isolated jungle populations and the Aymará. Gene frequencies are usually high also for M, s, R¹ (CDe), R² (cDE), Lu^b, k, Le^H, and Fy^a; and low or absent for A, B, N, S, Mi^a, Vw, R^o (cDe), r (cde), Lu^a, K, Le¹, Fy^b, and Wr^a. The Diego (Di^a) gene is present but varies greatly in frequencies among tribes. Hp¹ gene frequencies vary from 0.44 to 0.69 among the Peruvian Indians tested. Transferrin CD was encountered in only one population i.e., in 3 of 86 Piro (gene frequency Tf^D= 0.02). All others were C. All Peruvian Indian bloods tested electrophoretically contained only hemoglobin (A) as a major component.     

Distribution of hereditary blood groups among Indians in South America. V. In northern Brazil

This paper reports the results of tests made for hereditary antigens in blood samples procured from Indians in northern Brazil. Specimens were procured from 423 putatively full-blood persons of the following tribes: in the province of Roraima from 261 Macuxi, 48 Uaica, 27 Xirixano, 10 Uapixana, 9 Cacarapai and 9 Paramiteri; in Pará from 21 Assurini; and in Amapá from 38 Galibi. Erythrocyte samples were tested for factors in the A-B-O, M-N-S-s, P, Rh-Hr, Lutheran, Kell-Cellano, Lewis, Duffy, Kidd and Diego systems. Serum samples were tested for haptoglobins and transferrins. Hemolysates, prepared from whole blood, were tested for hemoglobin types. The results are presented on appropriate tables as number and per cent of phenotypes for the various blood group anigens and their calculated gene frequencies. Locations from which blood samples were procured are listed in the tables and shown on a map (fig. 1). All the 423 samples except one Macuxi belonged to group O. The Uaica tribe had a low frequency for M (0.534). All others showed the high frequency usually observed in Amerinds. The s allele was high in all except the Galibi in which the frequency was (0.500). Frequencies for P² was higher than for P¹ in all except the Assurini and Galibi, theirs was high for P¹ (1.00) and low for P² (0.00). The frequencies for R¹ (CDe) and R² (cDE) were high and all others in the Rh-Hr system were low or absent. All specimens were positive for Cellano (k) and negative for Kell (K). There was a complete absence of Lewis (Le₁), excepting in the Uaica and Xirixano in which populations Fy^a allele frequencies were higher than 0.500. The distribution of the Jk (a+) phenotype and corresponding ellele frequencies varied widely in Brazilian Indians as did those for Diego (a+). The haptoglobin Hp¹ allele frequencies were in essential agreement with those reported elsewhere for Indians in South America, and all transferrins determined were classified as Tf C. All samples tested for homoglobin types contained homoglobin (A) as a major component, but five members of the Galibi tribe possessed hemoglobin (S) as well.     

Distribution of hereditary blood groups among Indians in South America. IV. In Chile with inferences concerning genetic connections between Polynesia and America

This is the fourth paper in a series on the distribution of blood groups among Indians of South America. It reports the findings on the Indians of Chile and the Polynesians of Chile's Easter Island. Blood specimens were procured from the following putatively pure Indians and unmixed Polynesians: 44 Alacaluf of Puerto Eden, Isla Wellington, 141 Mapuche (Araucanian) of Lonquimay, Malleco Province, 80 Atacameños of Antofagasta Province, and 45 Polynesians of Easter Island. These 310 samples were tested for blood factors in the A-B-O, M-N-S-s, P, Rh-Hr, Lutheran, K-k, Lewis, Duffy, Kidd and Diego systems, and for the Wright (Wr^a) agglutinogen. Serum samples were tested for haptoglobins and transferrins. Hemolysates prepared from the blood clots were tested for hemoglobin types. The results are presented as phenotype incidences and calculated gene frequencies in appropriate tables. Locations of the populations from which blood samples were procured are shown on two maps. The high frequencies for the O gene usually reported for South American Indians obtain in putatively pure Chilean Indians but A¹ is high in Easter Island Polynesians. In both Indians and Polynesians M, s, R¹ (CDe), R² (cDE), Lu^b, k, Le^H, and Fy^a gene frequencies are high and B, N, S, Mi^a, Vw, Rº (cDe), r (cde), Lu^a, K, Le¹, Fy^b, and Wr^a (Ca) are low or absent. The Diego (Di) gene is present in the Mapuche and Atacameños but absent in the Alacaluf and Polynesians. Hp¹ gene frequencies were determined only in the Alacaluf and Atacameños, in which they are 0.48 and 0.67 respectively. Transferrins were determined for the Alacaluf and Atacameños Indians and all were classified as Tf C. All Chilean Indian and Polynesian specimens were tested electrophoretically for hemoglobin types and all contained only hemoglobin (A) as a major component.     

The genus Calceolaria in NW South America VII. The section Zygophylla

Sect. Zygophylla of Calceolaria (Scrophulariaceae) in NW South America is revised. It is characterized by connate leaves with winged petioles, and most of the species have intercalary inflorescences. Fourteen species are recognized in the investigated area, one of which is described as new, viz. C. zamorana. Two new combinations are made, viz. C. nevadensis ssp. meridensis (Pennell) Molau and C. purpurascens (Kranzlin) Molau. The chromosome number 2n = 36 is reported for six of the species, viz. C. calycina, C. dilatata, C. grandiflora, C. lanata, C. lojensis , and C. trilobala. The species of sect. Zygophylla are completely interfertile, and sympatric species are isolated by external barriers, e.g. pollination and habitat ecology. Several cases of natural hybridization and introgression are reported.     

The genetic structure of a tribal population, the Yanomama indians. VII. Anthropometric differences among Yanomama villages

Anthropometric data on 12 variables in 19 villages of the Yanomama Indians demonstrate significant heterogeneity in physique among villages of this tribe. Mahalanobis' distances (D²) calculated from the data lead to the tentative conclusion of a general correspondence between anthropometric and geographic distances separating villages. The mean stature of the Yanomama is smaller than that of most other South American tribes which have been measured, and the Yanomama are genetically distinct from the other small Indians as shown by genetic distances based on allele frequencies for a variety of genetic markers. Since some subjects were measured more than once by the same and by different observers, it was possible to calculate approximate estimates of variance within and between observers. Univariate analysis indicates that face height and nose height are especially susceptible to systematic differences in technique between observers. The variances obtained in this field study compare favorably with those of some classical laboratory studies described in the literature. It was found that measurement error nevertheless probably makes a substantial contribution to anthropometric distance between villages. The median error variance as a fraction of that of Herskovits ('30) is 0.62 for the seven measurements in common with this study. The median value of the error variance for the 12 variables in this study is between 16% and 17% of the total variance.     

A note on the presence of blood groups A and B in pre-Columbian South America

The results of ABO typing in Chilean mummies, a review of published South American paleoserological studies and a systematic discrepancy of admixture estimates based on ABO and Gm genes support the hypothesis that Andean pre-Columbian populations possessed the A (and perhaps the B) gene in small frequencies.     

Diversity and Distribution of Hantaviruses in South America

Hantaviruses are important contributors to disease burden in the New World, yet many aspects of their distribution and dynamics remain uncharacterized. To examine the patterns and processes that influence the diversity and geographic distribution of hantaviruses in South America, we performed genetic and phylogeographic analyses of all available South American hantavirus sequences. We sequenced multiple novel and previously described viruses (Anajatuba, Laguna Negra-like, two genotypes of Castelo dos Sonhos, and two genotypes of Rio Mamore) from Brazilian Oligoryzomys rodents and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome cases and identified a previously uncharacterized species of Oligoryzomys associated with a new genotype of Rio Mamore virus. Our analysis indicates that the majority of South American hantaviruses fall into three phylogenetic clades, corresponding to Andes and Andes-like viruses, Laguna Negra and Laguna Negra-like viruses, and Rio Mamore and Rio Mamore-like viruses. In addition, the dynamics and distribution of these viruses appear to be shaped by both the geographic proximity and phylogenetic relatedness of their rodent hosts. The current system of nomenclature used in the hantavirus community is a significant impediment to understanding the ecology and evolutionary history of hantaviruses; here, we suggest strict adherence to a modified taxonomic system, with species and strain designations resembling the numerical system of the enterovirus genus.     

Distribution of blood groups in Korea

Eight populations in the southern part of the Korean peninsula were studied to elucidate their genetic structure and to understand the genetic relationships between them. For this purpose, several blood groups and other genetic markers were analyzed. In total, over 9,000 blood specimens were collected. About 2,000 specimens were tested for 9 blood groups. The gene frequencies were estimated as A = 0.2555, B = 0.2244, O = 0.5201, M = 0.5263, S = 0.0560, d = 0.0472, C = 0.6542, E = 0.3126, Fya = 0.9210, Jka = 0.4386, Dia = 0.0539, P1 = 0.1939, K = 0.0010, Le = 0.6866 and Se = 0.6311 in the total sample. A continuous variation was observed for the frequency of gene B.     

Distribution and migration of Mississippi Kites in South America

Mississippi Kites (Ictinia mississippiensis) are trans‐equatorial, long‐distance migrants that breed in North America and overwinter in South America. Information about their migration routes and winter distribution in the Neotropics is mostly anecdotal. By compiling records of Mississippi Kites in South America from the literature and previously unpublished observations (1904–2010), we identified 96 locality records (a location where a flock or individual was recorded) and 146 independent records of flocks (observations of flocks irrespective of year, location, or time of year). Our locality records included 38 (39%) during southbound migration (1 September–30 November), 18 (19%) during northbound migration (15 February–30 April), 38 (39%) during austral summer (1 December–14 February), and two (3%) during austral winter (1 May–31 August). Most Mississippi Kites (84, 88%) were observed between the 11°S and 32°S latitudinal band in central South America. Of our independent records of flocks, 133 (92%) were observed between 11°S and 32°S, 12 (7%) between 11°N and 10°S, and a lone vagrant (1%) between 33°S and 43°S. Our data suggest that Mississippi Kites are common and widespread in the austral summer between 11°S and 32°S in central South America. On the basis of the number of locality records (N = 52, 54%) and number of flocks of Mississippi Kites observed between 22°S and 32°S (N = 61, 42%), the Chaco forest appears to be the main wintering grounds for the species. However, additional monitoring is needed to further test this hypothesis. A large portion of Chaco habitat is now under cultivation, and how this habitat transformation might influence the annual cycle of Mississippi Kites is unknown.     

Notes on Bursera in South America,including a new species. Studies in Neotropical Burseraceae VII

Bursera inversa is the first new species of the genus to be described from South America in 90 years. The ecology of this species is remarkable because it is a large (to 25 m × 40 cm or greater) canopy tree of primary moist to wet lowland forest. It is easily distinguished from its congeners by its large, obovoid fruits and bony pyrene. A key to the South American species ofBursera is provided.     

Geographic distribution of the Anostracans (Crustacea) in Argentina (South America)

Using materials of collection from nearly all the Argentinian provinces, a map of the distribution of the anostracans in Argentina has been elaborated. From the eight families recognized on a world scale, four are represented in the country; being the best represented considering the number of the species is the Branchinectidae one. New localities are mentioned for Branchinecta rocaen‐sis, Dendrocephalus cervicornis, D. brasiliensis, Phallocryptus salinicola and Anemia salina.