Survey of the howling monkey population at La Pacifica: A seven-year follow-up

We surveyed the howling monkey population at La Pacifica in Costa Rica over a 1-month period in July and August 1991. The survey method consisted of an initial 6-day survey, directly comparable to a 1984 survey, and at least two repeat surveys of all areas to locate all groups and to identify all animals. The initial survey indicated an increase in the number of groups and a decrease in the size of groups from earlier surveys, though the group composition was unchanged. We used the results of initial and repeat surveys to determine population size and composition. We located 30 groups with a total of 370 animals. Twenty-one groups contained animals marked with collars and/or legbands, and four additional groups contained animals with clearly identifiable white markings. Although the population structure has changed over 7 years, it is still within the species-typical range for Alouatta palliata.     

A Sightability Model for Mountain Goats

ABSTRACT Unbiased estimates of mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) populations are key to meeting diverse harvest management and conservation objectives. We developed logistic regression models of factors influencing sightability of mountain goat groups during helicopter surveys throughout the Cascades and Olympic Ranges in western Washington during summers, 2004–2007. We conducted 205 trials of the ability of aerial survey crews to detect groups of mountain goats whose presence was known based on simultaneous direct observation from the ground (n = 84), Global Positioning System (GPS) telemetry (n = 115), or both (n = 6). Aerial survey crews detected 77% and 79% of all groups known to be present based on ground observers and GPS collars, respectively. The best models indicated that sightability of mountain goat groups was a function of the number of mountain goats in a group, presence of terrain obstruction, and extent of overstory vegetation. Aerial counts of mountain goats within groups did not differ greatly from known group sizes, indicating that under-counting bias within detected groups of mountain goats was small. We applied Horvitz-Thompson-like sightability adjustments to 1,139 groups of mountain goats observed in the Cascade and Olympic ranges, Washington, USA, from 2004 to 2007. Estimated mean sightability of individual animals was 85% but ranged 0.75–0.91 in areas with low and high sightability, respectively. Simulations of mountain goat surveys indicated that precision of population estimates adjusted for sightability biases increased with population size and number of replicate surveys, providing general guidance for the design of future surveys. Because survey conditions, group sizes, and habitat occupied by goats vary among surveys, we recommend using sightability correction methods to decrease bias in population estimates from aerial surveys of mountain goats.     

Evaluation of relative density indices for sika deer in eastern Hokkaido, Japan

We evaluated relative density indices of sika deer (Cervus nippon) to aid in population management. We monitored sika deer population trends from 1992 to 2002 in the eastern part of Hokkaido Island, northern Japan, using spotlight surveys, aerial surveys, catch per unit effort (CPUE), sighting per unit effort (SPUE), and cost of damage to agriculture and forestry. We assumed that the artificial bias in the spotlight index would be lower than in other indices, and compared temporal patterns of other indices to those produced using spotlight surveys using model II regression. There was a significant correlation between the damage cost index and the spotlight index, and both indices indicated consistent population trends. Managers used CPUE as a tool to determine hunting quota efficiency. The SPUE index had the smallest standard error among the indices, and the spotlight survey index had the second smallest standard error. Overall, the spotlight survey was the most useful index because its estimate error was small and it was precise in showing population trends; however, spotlight surveys did lead to underestimation once in 1994. The SPUE index seems to be effective in checking the validity of the spotlight index, but there are so many environmental and demographic uncertainties that several independent indices should be used and crosschecked for accurate evaluation of population trends.     

The sequence and phylogenesis of the α-globin genes of Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), goat (Capra hircus), European mouflon (Ovis aries musimon) and Cyprus mouflon (Ovis aries ophion)

In order to investigate the polymorphism of α-globin chain of hemoglobin amongst caprines, the linked ^Iα and ^IIα globin genes of Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), goat (Capra hircus), European mouflon (Ovis aries musimon), and Cyprus mouflon (Ovis aries ophion) were completely sequenced, including the 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions. European and Cyprus mouflons, which do not show polymorphic α globin chains, had almost identical α globin genes, whereas Barbary sheep exhibit two different chains encoded by two nonallelic genes. Four different α genes were observed and sequenced in goat, validating previous observations of the existence of allelic and nonallelic polymorphism. As in other vertebrates, interchromosomal gene conversion appears to be responsible for such polymorphism. Evaluation of nucleotide sequences at the level of molecular evolution of the ^Iα-globin gene family in the caprine taxa suggests a closer relationship between the genus Ammotragus and Capra. Molecular clock estimates suggest sheep-mouflon, goat-aoudad, and ancestor-caprine divergences of 2.8, 5.7, and 7.1 MYBP, respectively.     

An Evaluation of Survey Methods for Estimating Northern Bobwhite Abundance in Southern Texas

Abstract: Distance sampling has been identified as a reliable and well-suited method for estimating northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) density. However, distance sampling using walked transects requires intense sampling to obtain precise estimates, thus making the technique impractical for large acreages. Researchers have addressed this limitation by either resorting to the use of indices (e.g., morning covey-call surveys) or incorporating the use of aerial surveys with distance sampling. Both approaches remain relatively untested. Our objectives were to 1) compare density estimates among morning covey-call surveys, helicopter transects, and walked transects; 2) test a critical assumption of distance sampling pertinent to helicopter surveys (i.e., all objects on line are detected); and 3) evaluate the underlying premise of morning covey-call surveys (i.e., that the no. of calling coveys correlates with bobwhite density). Our study was conducted on 3 study sites in Brooks County, Texas, USA, during October to December, 2001 to 2005. Comparisons between walked transects and morning covey-call surveys involved the entire 5-year data set, whereas helicopter transects involved only the latter 2 years. Density estimates obtained from helicopter transects were similar to walked transect estimates for both years. We documented a detection probability on the helicopter transect line of 70 ± 10.2% (% ± SE; n = 20 coveys). Morning covey-call surveys yielded similar density estimates to walked transect estimates during only 2 of 5 years, when walked transect estimates were the least accurate and precise. We detected a positive relationship (R² = 0.51; 95% CI for slope: 29.5–53.1; n = 63 observations) between covey density and number of coveys heard calling. We conclude that helicopter transects appear to be a viable alternative to walked transects for estimating density of bobwhites. Morning covey-call surveys appear to be a poor method to estimate absolute abundance and to depict general population trajectories.     

Chemical and fatty acid composition of male mouflon (Ovis ammon musimon Pal.) meat

The aim of this research was to determine the effect of age on chemical and fatty acid composition of the male mouflon (Ovis ammon musimon Pal.) meat. The male mouflons included in the study originated from the North Adriatic island Rab, Croatia. Three age groups were included (young, sub-adult, adult). An effect of age on chemical composition was not found. However, higher percentage of total fat, dry matter and ash was determined in the meat of young mouflons. Predominating saturated fatty acids in mouflon meat were myristic, palmitic and stearic acids. Age significantly (p < 0.05) affected only the percentage of palmitic acid being the highest in the meat of young mouflons. Percentage of the predominant monounsaturated fatty acid, oleic acid, did not change significantly with age. A higher (p < 0.05) percentage of the predominant polyunsaturated fatty acid, linoleic acid, was found in the meat of sub-adult mouflons. The meat of the young mouflons had a higher (p < 0.05) percentage of conjugated linoleic acid. The meat of the sub-adult and adult mouflons was found to have a higher (p < 0.05) percentage of total saturated fatty acids. A lower (p < 0.05) ratio of polyunsaturated and saturated fatty acids was found in the meat of young than in the meat of sub-adult mouflons. The ratio of n-6 and n-3 was lower (p < 0.05) in the adult than in the sub-adult mouflons. Higher (p < 0.05) atherogenicity and thrombogenicity indices were found in the young rather than in the adult mouflons. Low fat content (<1 %) and favourable ratios of polyunsaturated, saturated, n-6 and n-3 fatty acids make the mouflon meat a good choice for human diet.     

Molecular DNA identity of the mouflon of Cyprus (Ovis orientalis ophion,Bovidae): Near Eastern origin and divergence from Western Mediterranean conspecific populations

The mouflon population of Cyprus (Ovis orientalis ophion) comprises historically preserved feral descendants of sheep domesticated during the Neolithic. We determined genetic identity of this taxon in order to elucidate its systematic placement and enforce its protection. We used 12 loci of microsatellite DNA to infer genetic relationships between the Cypriot mouflon and either long-time isolated (Corsica, Sardinia) or recently introduced (central Italy) European mouflons (O. o. musimon). We also sequenced the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Cytochrome-b gene to infer the origin of the Cypriot mouflon including many National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) entries of European and Near Eastern conspecifics. Microsatellites disclosed net divergence between Western Mediterranean and Cypriot mouflon. The latter was included in the highly heterogeneous Near Eastern O. orientalis mtDNA group, Iran representing the most credited region as the source for its ancient introduction to Cyprus. Both international and national legislation protect the mouflon of Cyprus as a wild taxon (O. o. ophion). However, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and NCBI include the Cypriot mouflon as subspecies of its respective domestic species, the sheep (O. aries). Unfortunately, people charged with crime against protected mouflon may benefit from such taxonomic inconsistency between legislation and databases, as the latter can frustrate molecular DNA forensic outcomes. Until a definitive light can be shed on Near Eastern O. orientalis systematics, we suggest that the Cypriot mouflon should be unvaryingly referred to as O. o. ophion in order not to impair conservation in the country where it resides.     

Acoustic estimation of wildlife abundance: methodology for vocal mammals in forested habitats

Habitat loss and hunting pressure threaten mammal populations worldwide, generating critical time constraints on trend assessment. This study introduces a new survey method that samples continuously and non‐invasively over long time periods, obtaining estimates of abundance from vocalization rates. We present feasibility assessment methods for acoustic surveys and develop equations for estimating population size. As an illustration, we demonstrate the feasibility of acoustic surveys for African forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis). Visual surveys and vocalizations from a forest clearing in the Central African Republic were used to establish that low‐frequency elephant calling rate is a useful index of elephant numbers (linear regression P < 0.001, r_adj.² = 0.58). The effective sampling area was 3.22 km² per acoustic sensor, a dramatic increase in coverage over dung survey transects. These results support the use of acoustic surveys for estimating elephant abundance over large remote areas and in diverse habitats, using a distributed network of acoustic sensors. The abundance estimation methods presented can be applied in surveys of any species for which an acoustic abundance index and detection function have been established. This acoustic survey technique provides an opportunity to improve management and conservation of many acoustically‐active taxa whose populations are currently under‐monitored.     

Toxoplasma gondii Isolates from Mouflon Sheep (Ovis ammon) from Hawaii,USA

Little is known of Toxoplasma gondii isolates circulating in wildlife. The mouflon (Ovis ammon) is very popular game animal, hunted for its trophy horns. Here, we report the isolation and genetic characterization of T. gondii from two mouflons from Hawaii, USA. Both sheep had antibodies titers of 1:800 or higher. Viable T. gondii were isolated and nested PCR‐RFLP genotyping revealed two genotypes, a clonal Type III (designated TgMouflonUS1), and a new genotype (designated TgMouflonUS2, and ToxoDB PCR‐RFLP genotypes #249). This is the first report of T. gondii infection, isolation and genetic characterization in mouflons from the USA.     

Biomass estimation of orange roughy: a summary and evaluation of techniques for measuring stock size of a deep-water fish species in New Zealand

A number of techniques have been employed to measure biomass of orange roughy in New Zealand. Time series of stratified random trawl surveys in a number of areas over periods of 5–10 years have given relative abundance indices, which have been used in stock reduction analyses to estimate true biomass. This has given confident results for the Chatham Rise stock, and surveys have also shown strong trends in other regions. Acoustic surveys have been carried out on three grounds. They can give relative indices of orange roughy abundance in areas of fiat or medium sloping bottom, and have the potential for estimation of absolute biomass from a single survey. Egg production surveys have been employed on two grounds on the east coast of the North Island, where conditions of tight spawning aggregations and steep bottom topography have limited the success of other methods. Both daily fecundity reduction and annual egg production methods have been used. These have given estimates of true biomass from one-off surveys, although results are imprecise. Both unstandardized and standardized analyses of commercial catch-per-unit-effort data have given relative indices of abundance, which have formed an important part of stock assessment for several fisheries. No single technique used to measure the size of orange roughy stocks has proven ideal or appropriate in all New Zealand situations. All have advantages and disadvantages, depending on the characteristics of the fishing area and fish behaviour. For two areas, a combination of methods have been applied, which has given more confident results than those from a single technique.     

粗毛牛膝菊对呼和浩特植物多样性的影响

【目的】粗毛牛膝菊为内蒙古地区新发现的一种入侵植物,在呼和浩特的入侵范围不断扩大、种群数量日益增加。了解其入侵后对本地植物多样性产生的影响,可为及时防控提供预警与理论依据。【方法】通过样方调查法结合数理统计,分析21个样地中植物物种丰富度指数(S)、Simpson指数(D)、Shannon-Wiener指数(H)和Pielou指数(J)的差异。【结果】入侵样地中共有73种植物,隶属25科55属,其中菊科种类最多,共18种,占总种数的24.66%,禾本科、藜科种类次之,分别占17.81%和5.48%。粗毛牛膝菊入侵地中,其重要值(IV)呈现不同程度的增加,表现为IV随着相对密度、相对频度、相对盖度的增大而增大。与对照组相比,粗毛牛膝菊入侵地中的S、H、D和J指数均下降,下降最大幅度分别为65.2%、78.6%、62.2%和72.6%,其中H指数下降幅度最大。重要值与各多样性指数(S、D、H和J)间的关系表现为:随着粗毛牛膝菊重要值的增大,各多样性指数均下降,当IV0.551时,H指数显著降低(P0.05);当IV1.10时,H和J指数极显著降低(P0.01),呈明显的负相关。【结论】粗毛牛膝菊的入侵已对呼和浩特的植物多样性造成了威胁,应及时展开科学的防控措施。     

石竹科植物2个中国新记录种

西藏南部地形较为复杂,植物资源丰富,物种多样性高。笔者在对西藏山南地区高山植物多样性调查过程中,经野外调查、采集标本、查阅植物志等相关资料及分类鉴定,结果发现,山南地区隆子县的无心菜属(Arenaria)球花福禄草［A. globiflora (Fenzl) Edgew. & Hook. f.］和错那县蝇子草属(Silene)的错那蝇子草(S. birgittae Bocquet)为中国新记录种。该报道一方面丰富了中国植物区系的内容,更新了国产石竹科植物资料,对中国西藏山南地区植物多样性的保护及研究具有一定意义。另一方面说明中国西藏山南地区的植物多样性调查仍存在许多调查薄弱地区,还需加强相关地区植物多样性调查工作。     

Hermes copper (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lycaena</Emphasis> [<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hermelycaena</Emphasis>] <Emphasis Type="Italic">hermes</Emphasis>: Lycaenidae): life history and population estimation of a rare butterfly

Hermes copper (Lycaena [Hermelycaena] hermes: Lycaenidae) is a rare species endemic to the coastal sage scrub in and around San Diego, CA, USA. This species has experienced substantial habitat loss due to urbanization and recent wildfires. We present data collected from field surveys conducted in 2003 and 2004. The flight season lasted 1–2 months with densities varying among sites and years. We observed adults most often near California buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum) plants and significantly more often on north and west sides of trails or roads. We compared the robustness and statistical power of three indices of population size from the modified Pollard Walk surveys. We recorded the largest single-day count (Max Count), the cumulative number observed throughout the flight season (Pollard) and an estimate based on a four-parameter model (INCA: Insect Count Analyzer). The Pollard estimate was the most robust to sampling error and the most powerful at detecting population changes in simulated data. Improved monitoring techniques, both field methods and statistical estimation, are critical to determine the conservation status of rare butterflies like Hermes copper.     

Detection probability in aerial surveys of feral horses

Observation bias pervades data collected during aerial surveys of large animals, and although some sources can be mitigated with informed planning, others must be addressed using valid sampling techniques that carefully model detection probability. Nonetheless, aerial surveys are frequently employed to count large mammals without applying such methods to account for heterogeneity in visibility of animal groups on the landscape. This often leaves managers and interest groups at odds over decisions that are not adequately informed. I analyzed detection of feral horse (Equus caballus) groups by dual independent observers from 24 fixed-wing and 16 helicopter flights using mixed-effect logistic regression models to investigate potential sources of observation bias. I accounted for observer skill, population location, and aircraft type in the model structure and analyzed the effects of group size, sun effect (position related to observer), vegetation type, topography, cloud cover, percent snow cover, and observer fatigue on detection of horse groups. The most important model-averaged effects for both fixed-wing and helicopter surveys included group size (fixed-wing: odds ratio = 0.891, 95% CI = 0.850–0.935; helicopter: odds ratio = 0.640, 95% CI = 0.587–0.698) and sun effect (fixed-wing: odds ratio = 0.632, 95% CI = 0.350–1.141; helicopter: odds ratio = 0.194, 95% CI = 0.080–0.470). Observer fatigue was also an important effect in the best model for helicopter surveys, with detection probability declining after 3 hr of survey time (odds ratio = 0.278, 95% CI = 0.144–0.537). Biases arising from sun effect and observer fatigue can be mitigated by pre-flight survey design. Other sources of bias, such as those arising from group size, topography, and vegetation can only be addressed by employing valid sampling techniques such as double sampling, mark–resight (batch-marked animals), mark–recapture (uniquely marked and identifiable animals), sightability bias correction models, and line transect distance sampling; however, some of these techniques may still only partially correct for negative observation biases. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

The use of angler diary surveys to evaluate long-term changes in muskellunge populations on Lake of the Woods, Ontario

Reported improvements in the muskellunge angling fishery on Lake of the Woods, Ontario over the last two decades have paralleled an increase in the practice of catch and release angling, and an increase in minimum size regulations for this species. The overall status of muskellunge populations in this large, complex lake has proven difficult to monitor using standard assessment methods. A volunteer muskellunge angler diary program, established in 1988, has provided a cost effective method of gathering a large amount of information with which to track this fishery and associated populations. Results from angling diaries indicated increased angling effort, catch and success rates for muskellunge on Lake of the Woods since the early 1990s. Although the month of July accounted for the majority of angling effort and catch, angling success rates and sizes of fish reported in diaries improved monthly into the late fall. Angling success rates were consistently higher in angling diaries than from creel surveys, but both survey types showed similar long-term trends in the fishery. Angler diary data, incorporating both the numbers of fish caught and/or seen by anglers, were used to calculate catch equality indices which proved to be sensitive to changes in population abundance. Increased minimum length regulations for muskellunge during 1987–2001 have been largely responsible for a decline in harvest rates from an estimated 36% in 1986 to 0% since 1999. Although higher size limits have yet to produce more quality-sized fish in angler catches, diary survey data, supported by recent improvements in catch rates from assessment gill nets, would indicate that muskellunge recruitment has increased. This article concludes with a brief review of how muskellunge angler diary data has been used in the past, including recommendations to minimize biases associated with this survey method.     

The barbados vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaens): Changes in population size and crop damage, 1980–1994

We investigated changes in population size and crop damage for the vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus) in Barbados over the period 1980–1994. In both 1980 and 1994, we obtained data primarily via a survey of farmers islandwide to obtain estimates of group size and number of groups on agricultural land. We assessed the farmers’ estimates independently for reliability by counting number of groups and group size on a subsample of farms. We surveyed approximately 20% of the total land area in Barbados and extrapolated the results to the whole island. The estimate of population size of monkeys in 1994 is 4% greater than for 1980, but the difference is not statistically significant. This suggests that, despite the removal of over 10,000 vervets via humane trapping and through hunting over the 14-year period, population size has remained the same. Over the same time period, the percentage of crops damaged by vervets was reported by farmers to have increased almost 30%. The increase in crop damage relative to the increase in vervet abundance may best be explained by a decrease in the availability of crops to vervets, since substantial amounts of agricultural land were taken out of crop production between 1980 and 1994.     

Histoplasmosis in northwestern Argentina II: Prevalence ofHistoplasmosis capsulati and Paracoccidioidomycosis in the population south of Chuscha,Gonzalo and Potrero in the province of Tucuman

The present work was undertaken to obtain epidemiological data on the extent and distribution ofHistoplasma capsulatum var.capsulatum andParacoccidiodes brasiliensis infections south of the Chuscha, Gonzalo and Potrero areas of Argentina. Skin tests surveys of the human population with histoplasmin and paracoccidioidin were carried out in the permanent population of those localities. The infection index of the population showed that the area south of Chuscha has a high-prevalence of histoplasmosis capsulati. The Gonzalo and Potrero areas, according to their rates of infection also can be considered to have a relatively high prevalence of this disease. The frequency of individuals infected withP. brasiliensis suggests that the level of exposure to this fungus is considerable, especially in Gonzalo where the frequency of infection was 9.23%. The endemic areas of both diseases can be superimposed, as occurs in the northeastern part of Argentina.     

A comparison of methods used to count the elephant population of the Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa

Evaluation of alternative techniques used to estimate elephant population sizes is important in order to assess the accuracy of the results obtained, upon which management decisions may be based. Data from annual helicopter surveys carried out in the Addo Elephant National Park (1978–97) are compared with registration counts obtained from intensive ground surveys in which all elephants within the park are individually known. On average, total population size estimated in aerial surveys is 8.0% lower than registration counts (n₁₉₉₇ = 251), aerial calf (< 1 year) counts are 48.8% lower than registration counts, and aerial carcass counts are 50% below the total number of deaths documented in ground surveys. Registration counts provide more accurate demographic data than aerial surveys, the results of which are shown to vary widely and unpredictably, thus compromising their value. Where population estimates rely exclusively on aerial surveys, replicate counts are recommended in order to generate confidence intervals.     

Meta-analysis of survey data to assess trends of prairie butterflies in Minnesota, USA during 1979–2005

During 1993–1996, two teams (Schlicht, Swengels) surveyed the same Minnesota prairies, but without any coordination of sites, routes, methods, dates, and results between teams. In 27 instances, both teams surveyed the same site in the same year between 30 June and 18 July. For the 18 most frequently recorded species, abundance indices (individuals/h per site) significantly covaried between teams for 11 (61%) species, including 2/3 prairie specialists tested. No species significantly correlated negatively, 17/18 species had positive correlations, and the preponderance of positive correlations was significant. Swengel indices per hour (two surveyors; unlimited-width transect) averaged 2.42 times Schlicht indices (one surveyor; fixed-width transect). These results demonstrate that transect surveys by different teams at the same sites but not the same routes produce similar rankings of species abundance among sites. This approach to population monitoring (transect surveys during the season that covers the most specialist species at once, not necessarily with fixed routes but recording all species seen) might also be appropriate in other regions with high habitat loss and low human population density. Abundance indices from surveys by seven teams spanning 1979–2005 were calculated for evaluating population trends. For the five analyzable specialist species, 25/30 population trend tests of a species at a site had a negative direction, a highly significant skewing (P < 0.0001). By contrast, five “common” (most frequently recorded non-specialist) species had an even distribution of negative and positive trends. While adjacent sites had similarly timed decline thresholds (last year when a higher rate or any individual was recorded vs. first year when all subsequent indices were lower or zero) within species, these thresholds were not synchronized among sites in different counties. All sites analyzed in this study were preserves managed primarily with fire. While the ecosystem (or vegetative) approach to reserve selection has been validated in other studies to be effective at capturing populations of associated specialist butterflies, butterfly declines after reserve designation will likely continue unless the ecosystem approach to reserve management includes specific consideration of individual butterfly species’ required resources and management tolerances.     

The effects of cyclic dynamics and mating system on the effective size of an island mouflon population

The Haute Island mouflon (Ovis aries) population is isolated on one small (6.5 km2) island of the remote Kerguelen archipelago. Given a promiscuous mating system, a cyclic demography and a strong female-biased sex ratio after population crashes, we expected a low effective population size (Ne). We estimated Ne using demographic and temporal genetic approaches based on genetic information at 25 microsatellite loci from 62 and 58 mouflons sampled in 1988 and 2003, respectively. Genetic Ne estimates were higher than expected, varying between 104 and 250 depending on the methods used. Both demographic and genetic approaches show the Haute Island Ne is buffered against population crashes. The unexpectedly high Ne likely results from the cyclic winter crashes that allow young males to reproduce, limiting the variance of male reproductive success. Based on individual-based simulations, we suggest that despite a strongly female-biased sex ratio, the effects of the mating system on the effective population size more closely resemble random mating or weak polygyny.