A model mechanism for protein precipitation by caprylic acid: application to plasma purification

A model for the mechanism of protein precipitation by caprylic acid (CA) is developed on the basis of quantitative assays of precipitation with bovine serum albumin (BSA) and CA at different concentrations. It was found that the effect of CA is due to direct interaction with the precipitating protein. Maximum precipitation was achieved when the mass ratio of CA-BSA was close to 1, equivalent to about 450 CA molecules per molecule of BSA. This value was confirmed by optimizing the CA purification of immunoglobulins from equine blood plasma. With a sample diluted 1:1, it was found that CA at a final concentration of 3.5% is optimal to obtain immunoglobulins essentially free of albumin by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. It is proposed that CA binds to specific sites of the protein, thereby inducing partial unfolding of the protein, which exposes additional binding sites. More CA molecules incorporate into all sites in the form of mixed micelles. Thus, the interfacial protein surface becomes highly hydrophobic and increases protein-protein attraction, causing association and precipitation of the macromolecular complexes.     

IgG4 levels in polyvalent immunoglobulins and immunoglobulins prepared by precipitation with caprylic acid

Levels of IgG4 in immunoglobulin preparations obtained either by conventional ethanol fractionation or by ethanol and caprylic acid fractionation (Allergam) were measured by an enzyme-immunoassay (competitive Elisa). In 9 ethanol preparations, the mean percentage of IgG4 was 2.1% +/- 0.5. In 10 preparations of Allergam, the mean percentage of IgG4 was 4.6% +/- 1. The concentration of IgG4 in Allergam preparations is about twice the concentration found in conventional ethanol preparations.     

正辛酸沉淀在单克隆抗体纯化中的工艺优化与应用

为应对治疗性抗体快速增长的市场需求,抗体上游细胞培养规模和表达量水平已显著提高,而下游纯化工艺的生产效率则相对落后,下游处理能力已成为限制抗体产能的瓶颈。本研究以单克隆抗体mab-X为实验材料,优化了细胞培养液、低pH病毒灭活收集液2种模式的正辛酸(caprylic acid,CA)沉淀工艺条件,并研究了CA处理去除聚体、CA处理灭活病毒等2种应用,在小试的基础上,采用低pH病毒灭活收集液CA沉淀的模式进行了500 L细胞培养规模生产放大研究,对沉淀前后的产品质量和收率进行了检测和对比。结果显示,两种模式的CA沉淀均可显著降低宿主细胞蛋白(host cell protein,HCP)残留和聚体含量,在聚体去除实验中CA沉淀可去除约15%的聚体,病毒灭活研究显示CA对逆转录模型病毒具有完全的病毒灭活能力。在放大生产规模中,下游依次进行了深层过滤收获、亲和层析、低pH病毒灭活、CA沉淀及深层过滤、阳离子交换层析,CA沉淀过程中混合时间和搅拌速度显著影响CA沉淀效果,CA沉淀处理后低pH病毒灭活液中的HCP残留量降低了895倍,沉淀后产品纯度和HCP残留均已控制在单克隆抗体质量要求范围内,CA沉淀可以减少传统纯化工艺中的一个精纯步骤。总之,下游工艺中采用CA沉淀,能够精简传统纯化工艺,并完全满足mab-X的纯化质量要求,而且能提高生产效率、降低生产成本。本研究结果将推动CA沉淀在单克隆抗体下游纯化生产中的应用,为解决目前传统纯化工艺的问题提供参考。     

辛酸沉淀结合阴离子交换层析纯化马IgG的研究

目的以辛酸沉淀结合离子交换层析纯化破伤风抗毒素马免疫血浆,获得高质量的马IgG,为抗毒素F(ab')2的制备奠定基础。方法通过对辛酸沉淀马血浆过程中的pH、辛酸浓度以及血浆稀释倍数的实验设计(DoE),研究不同条件对IgG纯度、效价、比活性、浊度以及过滤速度的影响,确定各工艺参数的可操作区间,并结合Capto DEAE阴离子交换层析以流穿模式进一步纯化IgG。结果马血浆经一步辛酸沉淀获得的IgG纯度(SDSPAGE)大于92%、分子排阻色谱(SEC)纯度大于95%,比活性较血浆提高2.14±0.29倍;辛酸沉淀后的IgG样品经阴离子交换层析,可有效去除聚合体以及小分子杂质,将纯度提高至95%(SDS-PAGE)和98%(SEC)。结论马血浆经辛酸沉淀和阴离子交换层析可获得高纯度、高比活的IgG。     

Partitioning and inactivation of viruses by the caprylic acid precipitation followed by a terminal pasteurization in the manufacturing process of horse immunoglobulins

Caprylic acid (octanoic acid), has been used for over 50 years as a stabilizer of human albumin during pasteurization. In addition caprylic acid is of great interest, by providing the advantage of purifying mammalian immunoglobulins and clearing viruses infectivity in a single step. Exploiting these two properties, we sequentially used the caprylic acid precipitation and the pasteurization to purify horse hyperimmune globulins used in the manufacturing of Sérocytol. To evaluate the effectiveness of the process for the removal/inactivation of viruses, spiking studies were carried out for each dedicated step. Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV), pseudorabies virus (PRV), encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) and minute virus of mice (MVM) were used for the virological validation. Our data show that the treatment with caprylic acid 5% (v/v) can effectively be used as well to purify or to ensure viral safety of immunoglobulins. Caprylic acid precipitation was very efficient in removing and/or inactivating enveloped viruses (PRV, BVDV) and moderately efficient against non-enveloped viruses (MVM, ECMV). However the combination with the pasteurization ensured an efficient protection against both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. So that viruses surviving to the caprylic acid precipitation will be neutralized by pasteurization. Significant log reduction were achieved > or =9 log(10) for enveloped viruses and 4 log(10) for non-enveloped viruses, providing the evidence of a margin of viral safety achieved by our manufacturing process. Its a simple and non-expensive manufacturing process of immunoglobulins easily validated that we have adapted to a large production scale with a programmable operating system.     

Protein purification by affinity precipitation

Developing the most efficient strategy for the purification of a (recombinant) protein especially at large scale remains a challenge. A typical problem of the downstream process of mammalian cell products is, for instance, the early capture of the highly diluted product from the complex process stream. Affinity precipitation has been suggested in this context. The technique is known for over 20 years, but has recently received more attention due to the development of new materials for its implementation, but also because it seems ideally suited to specific product capture at large scale. The present review gives a comprehensive overview over this technique. Besides an introduction to the basic principle and a brief summary of the historical development, the main focus is on the current state-of-art of the technique, the available materials, important recent applications, as well as process design strategies and operating procedures. Special consideration is given to affinity precipitation for product recovery at large scale.     

Protein precipitation and denaturation by dimethyl sulfoxide

Solvent conditions play a major role in a wide range of physical properties of proteins in solution. Organic solvents, including dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), have been used to precipitate, crystallize and denature proteins. We have studied here the interactions of DMSO with proteins by differential refractometry and amino acid solubility measurements. The proteins used, i.e., ribonuclease, lysozyme, beta-lactoglobulin and chymotrypsinogen, all showed negative preferential DMSO binding, or preferential hydration, at low DMSO concentrations, where they are in the native state. As the DMSO concentration was increased, the preferential interaction changed from preferential hydration to preferential DMSO binding, except for ribonuclease. The preferential DMSO binding correlated with structural changes and unfolding of these proteins observed at higher DMSO concentrations. Amino acid solubility measurements showed that the interactions between glycine and DMSO are highly unfavorable, while the interactions of DMSO with aromatic and hydrophobic side chains are favorable. The observed preferential hydration of the native protein may be explained from a combination of the excluded volume effects of DMSO and the unfavorable interaction of DMSO with a polar surface, as manifested by the unfavorable interactions of DMSO with the polar uncharged glycine molecule. Such an unfavorable interaction of DMSO with the native protein correlates with the enhanced self-association and precipitation of proteins by DMSO. Conversely, the observed conformational changes at higher DMSO concentration are due to increased binding of DMSO to hydrophobic and aromatic side chains, which had been newly exposed on protein unfolding.     

Protein amino acid composition: a genomic signature of encephalization in mammals

Large brains relative to body size represent an evolutionarily costly adaptation as they are metabolically expensive and demand substantial amounts of time to reach structural and functional maturity thereby exacerbating offspring mortality while delaying reproductive age. In spite of its cost and adaptive impact, no genomic features linked to brain evolution have been found. By conducting a genome-wide analysis in all 37 fully sequenced mammalian genomes, we show that encephalization is significantly correlated with overall protein amino acid composition. This correlation is not a by-product of changes in nucleotide content, lifespan, body size, absolute brain size or genome size; is independent of phylogenetic effects; and is not restricted to brain expressed genes. This is the first report of a relationship between this fundamental and complex trait and changes in protein AA usage, possibly reflecting the high selective demands imposed by the process of encephalization across mammalian lineages.     

Protein content and amino acid composition of cassava leaf

On the basis of leaf dry wt, the protein content of six varieties of cassava varied from 29.3 to 38.6% and the estimated leaf protein production ranged from 242 to 953 kg per ha. On the basis of fr. wt of leaf, the total amino acids ranged from 8.42 to 9.4% while the essential amino acids averaged 4.21% and the sulphur-containing amino acids only 0.25%. The amino acid composition profiles for the six varieties was similar.     

Protein subunits and amino acid composition of wild lentil

Three wild species of lentil, Lens orientalis, L. ervoides and L. nigricans were investigated for protein subunits of the albumin protein fraction (APF), globulin protein fraction (GPF) and for protein and free amino acid composition. The APF and GPF formed 12.7–16.8 % and 34.7–49.0 %, respectively, of the meal nitrogen. SDS-PAGE showed APF to contain 15 to 20 major and a similar number of minor protein subunits ranging in M_r at least from 14 400 to 94 000. The GPF was also heterogenous and contained some subunits having M_r similar to APF subunits but none < 15 000. The three wild lentil species were distinguishable by their protein subunit composition. The protein amino acid composition of the wild species was identical and similar to that of the cultivated lentil. The wild species, like the cultivated species (L. culinaris), contained major amounts of free arginine, glutamic and aspartic acids, serine and a number of unidentified amino acids. L. orientalis, L. nigricans and the cultivated lentil contained two acidic and two basic unidentified amino acids. However, L. ervoides was distinctly different in that it contained only the two acidic plus one neutral unidentified amino acid, but none of the two basic unidentified amino acids.     

ProCoS: Protein composition server

ProCoS is a free online tool for computing different combinations of peptide compositions. It is developed as an applet and a server with a capability to handle multiple FASTA sequences. The generalized algorithm for computing poly-amino acid composition forms the core of ProCoS. It produces output in different formats for easy visualization of results. It also allows composition analysis of sequences in full or in specific parts. Thus, ProCoS is user-friendly, flexible and unique.     

Protein packing: dependence on protein size, secondary structure and amino acid composition

We have used the occluded surface algorithm to estimate the packing of both buried and exposed amino acid residues in protein structures. This method works equally well for buried residues and solvent-exposed residues in contrast to the commonly used Voronoi method that works directly only on buried residues. The atomic packing of individual globular proteins may vary significantly from the average packing of a large data set of globular proteins. Here, we demonstrate that these variations in protein packing are due to a complex combination of protein size, secondary structure composition and amino acid composition. Differences in protein packing are conserved in protein families of similar structure despite significant sequence differences. This conclusion indicates that quality assessments of packing in protein structures should include a consideration of various parameters including the packing of known homologous proteins. Also, modeling of protein structures based on homologous templates should take into account the packing of the template protein structure.     

Protein precipitation by polyethylene glycol: a generalized model based on hydrodynamic radius

PEGs for protein precipitation are usually classified by molecular weight. The higher molecular weight precipitants are more efficient but result in higher viscosity. Following empirical evidence that the precipitation efficiency is more comprehensively characterized by PEG hydrodynamic radius (r_h,PEG) than molecular weight, this paper proposes a model to explicate the significance of r_h,PEG. A general expression was formulated to characterize the PEG effect exclusively by r_h,PEG. The coefficients of a linearized form were then fitted using empirical solubility data. The result is a simple numerical relation that models the efficiency of general-shaped PEG precipitants as a function of r_h,PEG and protein hydrodynamic radius (r_h,prot). This equation also explains the effects of environmental conditions and PEG branching. While predictions by the proposed correlation agree reasonably well with independent solubility data, its simplicity gives rise to potential quantitative deviations when involving small proteins, large proteins and protein mixtures. Nonetheless, the model offers a new insight into the precipitation mechanism by clarifying the significance of r_h,PEG. This in turn helps to refine the selection criterion for PEG precipitants.     

Protein recovery from surfactant precipitation

The recovery of lysozyme from an aqueous solution containing precipitated lysozyme-AOT complexes formed by the direct addition of sodium bis-(2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate (AOT) to a lysozyme solution was studied using both solvents, and a counterionic surfactant. Ethanol,methanol and solvent mixtures dissolved the surfactant precipitate and recovered lysozyme as a solid. Recovery efficiency and protein stability varied with the type of solvent used. An entirely different method of recovery was also evaluated using a counterionic surfactant: tri-octylmethylammonium chloride (TOMAC) which bound to AOT releasing lysozyme into solution.Complete recovery (100%) of lysozyme was achieved at a molar ratio of 2:1(TOMAC:AOT), and the original protein activity was maintained in the final aqueous phase.The recovered lysozyme retained its secondary structure as observed in circular dichroism(CD) spectra. Specific activity studies show that counterionic surfactant extraction does not alter the biological activity of the enzyme.     

Armadillo: domain boundary prediction by amino acid composition

The identification and annotation of protein domains provides a critical step in the accurate determination of molecular function. Both computational and experimental methods of protein structure determination may be deterred by large multi-domain proteins or flexible linker regions. Knowledge of domains and their boundaries may reduce the experimental cost of protein structure determination by allowing researchers to work on a set of smaller and possibly more successful alternatives. Current domain prediction methods often rely on sequence similarity to conserved domains and as such are poorly suited to detect domain structure in poorly conserved or orphan proteins. We present here a simple computational method to identify protein domain linkers and their boundaries from sequence information alone. Our domain predictor, Armadillo (http://armadillo.blueprint.org), uses any amino acid index to convert a protein sequence to a smoothed numeric profile from which domains and domain boundaries may be predicted. We derived an amino acid index called the domain linker propensity index (DLI) from the amino acid composition of domain linkers using a non-redundant structure dataset. The index indicates that Pro and Gly show a propensity for linker residues while small hydrophobic residues do not. Armadillo predicts domain linker boundaries from Z-score distributions and obtains 35% sensitivity with DLI in a two-domain, single-linker dataset (within +/-20 residues from linker). The combination of DLI and an entropy-based amino acid index increases the overall Armadillo sensitivity to 56% for two domain proteins. Moreover, Armadillo achieves 37% sensitivity for multi-domain proteins, surpassing most other prediction methods. Armadillo provides a simple, but effective method by which prediction of domain boundaries can be obtained with reasonable sensitivity. Armadillo should prove to be a valuable tool for rapidly delineating protein domains in poorly conserved proteins or those with no sequence neighbors. As a first-line predictor, domain meta-predictors could yield improved results with Armadillo predictions.     

Purification of staphylococcal Protein A by affinity precipitation: dissociation of Protein A from the adsorbent with chemical reagents

Some other ways to elute Protein A adsorbed on an adsorbent for the affinity precipitation process than desorption with a glycine-HCl buffer (pH 2.5) are examined. Protein A was recovered at a satisfactory yield by dissociation with a 3.5 M KSCN solution without exposure to extreme low pH.