Water relations of understorey shrubs in a Banksia woodland,Swan Coastal Plain,Western Australia

Abstract Diurnal and seasonal water relations were measured in understorey species from a Banksia woodland. The shrubs exhibited various responses to summer drought. Stirlingia latifolia had high xylem pressure potential and transpiration in late summer. Adenanthos cygnorum maintained high xylem pressure potential year round with dawn values around ? 0.3 MPa and minimum values around ?1.3 MPa, but showed severe restriction of transpiration in late summer. Eremaea pauciflora and Jacksonia floribunda had high transpiration and xylem pressure potential levels in early summer, but exhibited water stress in late summer when transpiration rates were low and minimum xylem pressure potentials were as low as ? 5.5 MPa. Late summer xylem pressure potentials in 27 other shrub species were, in general, inversely related to root system depth with minimum values below ? 5.0 MPa in some species. The water relations of S. latifolia, E. pauciflora and J. floribunda indicated a phreatophytic habit: all possessed deep roots of sufficient size to reach groundwater that was located 6–7 m deep at the study site. Stirlingia latifolia functioned phreatophytically year round, while E. pauciflora and J. floribunda were phreatophytes until the falling water table carried ground-water beyond the reach of their roots in late summer. However, most understorey species depended on soil-stored water. Water use by the understorey was greatest in early summer.     

Water relations of the canopy species in a Banksia woodland,Swan Coastal Plain,Western Australia

Abstract Diurnal and seasonal water relations were measured in selected species of a Banksia woodland at a site with groundwater at a depth of 6–7 m. The canopy co-dominants Banksia attenuata and Banksia menziesii exhibited similar patterns of variation in water relations, both diurnally and seasonally. Stomatal conductance was usually 0.4–0.5 cm s^?1 diurnally and seasonally and, generally, did not respond to water deficit and other factors. Transpiration was correlated positively with factors indicative of atmospheric evaporative demand, especially total global radiation and pan evaporation, and was highest in summer when canopy water use reached 2.1 mm d^?1. Xylem pressure potential at dawn averaged ?0.25 MPa in both species throughout the year. Minimum xylem pressure potential varied seasonally and was negatively correlated with transpiration. Seasonal means of minimum xylem pressure potential varied from ?1.0 MPa in winter to ?1.5 MPa in early summer. Both Banksia species appeared to function as phreatophytes, utilizing groundwater which enabled them to maintain high rates of water use in late summer. Water use over a 12 month period totalled 635 mm, of which the canopy and understorey contributed 61% and 39%, respectively. Water use in the woodland was dominated by the canopy in late summer and the understorey at other times.     

Composition and ecological drivers of the kwongan scrub and woodlands in the northern Swan Coastal Plain,Western Australia

The nature of community patterns and environmental drivers in kwongan mediterranean‐type shrubland on nutrient‐poor soils occurring in Western Australia remain poorly examined. We aimed to determine whether (i) classification of the kwongan vegetation of the northern Swan Coastal Plain would be ecologically informative and (ii) which environmental drivers underpin the plant community patterns. The study area was positioned on the northern Swan Coastal Plain, locality of Cooljarloo (30°39′ S, 115°22′ E), situated 170 km north of Perth, Western Australia. Compositional (518 species × 337 relevés) and environmental data set (29 variables × 87 relevés) describing time since last fire, soil chemical and physical properties, and terrain characteristics were analysed using classification and ordination techniques. OptimClass assisted in the selection of a robust data transformation, resemblance function and clustering algorithm to identify the vegetation patterns. Major ecological drivers of the vegetation patterns were detected using distance‐based redundancy analysis (db‐RDA). Classification revealed major groupings of Wet Heath and Banksia Woodland distinguishable by the high prevalence of myrtyoid and proteoid taxa, respectively. On floristic‐sociological grounds, we recognised four Wet Heath and two Banksia Woodland communities. The Wet Heath was constrained to areas of higher litter depth (db‐RDA axis 1: 9%). Soil chemical and physical properties explained the highest proportion (17%) of the compositional variance, while the terrain‐ and fire‐related variables explained 2% and <0.001%, respectively. While fire explained little compositional variance overall, a separate db‐RDA analysis found that it may play an important pattern‐structuring role within Banksia Woodlands. Fine‐scale compositional patterns correspond only to a small extent to environmental data; the substantial unexplained variance may be due to slow‐acting neutral and stochastic processes.     

Control of the exotic bulb, Yellow Soldier (Lachenalia reflexa) invading a Banksia woodland, Perth, Western Australia

Summary In recent times managers have become increasingly aware of the South African bulbous species Yellow Soldier ( Lachenalia reflexa ) becoming a serious weed of bushland on the Swan Coastal Plain. In 1998, trials were implemented to investigate control options for Yellow Soldier invading the understorey of a Banksia ( Banksia attenuata ) Woodland west of Perth. Our trials showed that hand removal over two seasons left all natives intact but was very labour intensive, only reducing cover of Yellow Soldier by 44%. It also triggered germination by ephemeral weeds. Wiping the leaves of individual plants with a 10% glyphosate solution was not effective and was also highly labour intensive. Spot spraying with metsulfuron methyl at 0.2 g/15 L (5 g/ha) reduced the cover of Yellow Soldier by 65%, was easier to implement and appeared to have had insignificant effects on natives. We hope that this trial will encourage other workers in the field to undertake controlled trials to refine treatments at restoration sites.     

The eco-hydrology of partly cleared,native ecosystems in southern Australia: a review

Water use by the native vegetation that existed in southern Australia prior to European settlement was largely in balance with rainfall. European settlers altered the landscape by clearing land to grow agricultural crops and pastures, and with the introduction of livestock to graze the partly cleared, native ecosystems. The aim of this review is to contrast the hydrology of grazed, partly cleared ecosystems, intact indigenous ecosystems, and entirely cleared agricultural systems in the intensive land-use zone (350–1000 mm annual rainfall zone) of southern Australia. Since European settlement, the areas of forests and woodlands in the Murray–Darling Basin have declined by approximately 64% to make way for agricultural enterprises. Modern-day vegetation surveys estimate between 52 and 58% of the intensive land-use zone of the Murray–Darling Basin has been entirely cleared, while about 40% is in the partly cleared state (disturbed ecosystems with canopy cover exceeding 5%). The replacement of native vegetation by agricultural crops and pastures has disturbed the water cycle that existed prior to European settlement, and has markedly elevated the amount of water leaking beyond the root zone of introduced species, and contributing to groundwater systems. Estimates of annual leakage beneath the root zone of annual crops range from 0 to 63 mm per annum; however, no estimates of leakage for partly cleared woodlands exist. Yet, because the groundwater beneath partly cleared woodlands rises considerably more slowly than under entirely cleared landscapes, it is likely that less water leaks beneath the roots of grazed woody ecosystem. However, aging of these systems by livestock grazing will reduce the numbers of woody individuals and will impact on groundwater recharge.     

From genetic structure to wetland conservation: a freshwater isopod <Emphasis Type="Italic">Paramphisopus palustris</Emphasis> (Phreatoicidea: Amphisopidae) from the Swan Coastal Plain,Western Australia

The freshwater isopod Paramphisopus palustris is ubiquitous and abundant in the groundwater-fed wetlands of the Swan Coastal Plain around Perth, Western Australia. Taxonomically, an additional variety (P. palustris fairbridgei) and species (P. montanus) are recognized from geographically outlying localities. Here a 486 bp fragment of cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) mtDNA was sequenced in 68 individuals from 23 localities in order to evaluate the accepted taxonomy, to examine the evolutionary history of the species, and to identify lineages to prioritize conservation of wetlands already substantially modified. MtDNA showed individual populations to be largely distinct and differentiated. The 41 unique haplotypes formed seven independent, geographically defined networks. Phylogenetic analysis retrieved corresponding subclades, with three well-supported larger clades occurring (1) north of the Swan River, (2) south of the Swan River, and (3) in an area further south. A clear pattern of isolation by distance was detected suggesting an ancient serial founder event, with the pattern possibly persisting in the face of limited gene flow through priority effects. The possibility of incipient speciation, the monophyly of the recognized subspecies and the paraphyly of P. palustris with respect to P. montanus, suggest that the current taxonomy is invalid and requires re-examination. Divergences suggest a mid- to early Pliocene divergence of the major clades, with early Pliocene divergences among subclades probably driven by documented intense arid periods. Lineages are present in wetlands in geologically younger environments suggesting in situ survival and persistence. Seven Evolutionarily Significant Units were identified for the conservation of Paramphisopus, two of which are not currently represented in conservation reserves. With increased water demand and the negative impact of surrounding land-use, the current study provides a first phylogeographic assessment of conservation priorities for wetlands of the Swan Coastal Plain. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi: ) contains supplementary material which is available to authorized users. Handling editor: C. Sturmbauer