通量梯度法在温室气体及同位素通量观测研究中的应用与展望

通量梯度法与涡度相关法均是微气象学的物质和能量通量观测方法, 在没有高频气体分析仪或下垫面风浪区较小的情况下, 通量梯度法可以有效观测生态系统(或土壤)与大气之间的温室气体及其同位素通量, 同时也可以作为涡度相关法的配套观测和有益补充。该文回顾了通量梯度法的基本原理、概念和假设, 重点综述了温室气体浓度梯度以及相关湍流扩散系数的观测与计算的方法和理论, 概述了通量梯度法在森林、农田、草地、湿地和水体等生态系统观测温室气体通量的应用进展, 特别是在稳定同位素通量观测中的应用, 最后从影响温室气体和同位素的浓度梯度以及湍流扩散系数测定与计算等方面概述了应用注意事项及建议。     

The use of relaxed eddy accumulation to measure biosphere-atmosphere exchange of isoprene and other biological trace gases

The micrometeorological flux measurement technique known as relaxed eddy accumulation (REA) holds promise as a powerful new tool for ecologists. The more popular eddy covariance (eddy correlation) technique requires the use of sensors that can respond at fast rates (10 Hz), and these are unavailable for many ecologically relevant compounds. In contrast, the use of REA allows flux measurement with sensors that have much slower response time, such as gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. In this review, relevant micrometeorological details underlying REA are presented, and critical analytical and system design details are discussed, with the goal of introducing the technique and its potential applications to ecologists. The validity of REA for measuring fluxes of isoprene, a photochemically reactive hydrocarbon emitted by several plant species, was tested with measurements over an oak-hickory forest in the Walker Branch Watershed in eastern Tennessee. Concurrent eddy covariance measurements of isoprene flux were made using a newly available chemiluminesence instrument. Excellent agreement was obtained between the two techniques (r ² = 0.974, n = 62), providing the first direct comparison between REA and eddy covariance for measuring the flux rate of a reactive compound. The influence of a bias in vertical wind velocity on the accuracy of REA was examined. This bias has been thought to be a source of significant error in the past. Measurements of normalized bias () alone would lead us to think that a large potential error exists at this site. However, with our isoprene data and through simulations of REA with fast-response H₂O and CO₂ data, we conclude that accurate REA flux measurements can be made even in the presence of a bias in w. Received: 26 March 1997 / Accepted: 14 April 1998     

杨树人工林生态系统通量贡献区分析

采取通量源区模型FSAM(Flux Source Area Model)利用2009年北京大兴区杨树人工林生态系统碳水通量涡度相关观测资料,分析了不同大气条件下生态系统的通量贡献区分布特征。研究结果表明:(1)该站通量贡献区随大气稳定条件增强而增大。除326.25°—3.75°方向生长季不稳定条件下外,生长季的通量贡献区范围普遍大于非生长季的贡献区范围;(2)通量贡献区与观测高度、冠层高度、地表粗糙度、风向以及大气稳定度有关,当风速风频较大,大气不稳定时,湍流扩散作用强烈,贡献区范围较小;(3)该观测场在2009年以不稳定大气条件为主,通量信息主要来源于距离观测塔50—400 m范围,且69.3%的信息来源于通量塔偏北风与偏南风方向,其中42.56%的信息来自于偏南风方向;(4)随着大气稳定程度加强,通量来源最少区从塔偏西方转为偏东方,在大气稳定度条件和风向的共同作用下,生长季时主要通量贡献区在塔偏南方向,而非生长季时主要通量贡献区在塔偏北方向。     

An automated system for continuous measurements of trace gas fluxes through snow: an evaluation of the gas diffusion method at a subalpine forest site,Niwot Ridge,Colorado

An experimental system for sampling trace gas fluxes through seasonal snowpack was deployed at a subalpine site near treeline at Niwot Ridge, Colorado. The sampling manifold was in place throughout the entire snow-covered season for continuous air sampling with minimal disturbance to the snowpack. A series of gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, ozone, volatile organic compounds) was determined in interstitial air withdrawn at eight heights in and above the snowpack at ~hourly intervals. In this paper, carbon dioxide data from 2007 were used for evaluation of this technique. Ancillary data recorded inlcuded snow physical properties, i.e., temperature, pressure, and density. Various vertical concentration gradients were determined from the multiple height measurements, which allowed calculation of vertical gas fluxes through the snowpack using Fick’s 1st law of diffusion. Comparison of flux results obtained from different height inlet combinations show that under most conditions fluxes derived from individual gradient intervals agree with the overall median of all data within a factor of 1.5. Winds were found to significantly influence gas concentration and gradients in the snowpack. Under the highest observed wind conditions, concentration gradients and calculated fluxes dropped to as low as 13% of non-wind conditions. Measured differential pressure amplitude exhibited a linear relationship with wind speed. This suggests that wind speed is a sound proxy for assessing advection transport in the snow. Neglecting the wind-pumping effect resulted in considerable underestimation of gas fluxes. An analysis of dependency of fluxes on wind speeds during a 3-week period in mid-winter determined that over this period actual gas fluxes were most likely 57% higher than fluxes calculated by the diffusion method, which omits the wind pumping dependency. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Measuring fluxes of trace gases and energy between ecosystems and the atmosphere – the state and future of the eddy covariance method

The application of the eddy covariance flux method to measure fluxes of trace gas and energy between ecosystems and the atmosphere has exploded over the past 25 years. This opinion paper provides a perspective on the contributions and future opportunities of the eddy covariance method. First, the paper discusses the pros and cons of this method relative to other methods used to measure the exchange of trace gases between ecosystems and the atmosphere. Second, it discusses how the use of eddy covariance method has grown and evolved. Today, more than 400 flux measurement sites are operating world‐wide and the duration of the time series exceed a decade at dozens of sites. Networks of tower sites now enable scientists to ask scientific questions related to climatic and ecological gradients, disturbance, changes in land use, and management. The paper ends with discussions on where the field of flux measurement is heading. Topics discussed include role of open access data sharing and data mining, in this new era of big data, and opportunities new sensors that measure a variety of trace gases, like volatile organic carbon compounds, methane and nitrous oxide, and aerosols, may yield.     

长白山阔叶红松林二氧化碳湍流交换特征

采用开路式涡度相关技术,研究了长白山阔叶红松林森林-大气界面的CO₂湍流交换特征.结果表明,在近中性大气层结条件下,冠层上方垂直风速和CO₂浓度功率谱在惯性子区基本符合-2/3定律,垂直方向主导湍涡尺度约为40 m.湍流通量贡献区主要在0.01～2 Hz频率范围内,冠层上方低频传输的湍涡贡献了更多的CO₂通量.这说明开路式涡度相关仪器系统可以满足冠层上方湍流通量观测的基本要求.但通过涡度相关法实测获得的森林-大气CO₂通量仍存在夜间低估现象,非湍流过程的增加是涡度相关技术应用的主要制约因素.因此,需要对弱湍流条件下的CO₂通量做相应的修订.     

Assessing the eddy covariance technique for evaluating carbon dioxide exchange rates of ecosystems: past, present and future

The eddy covariance technique ascertains the exchange rate of CO₂ across the interface between the atmosphere and a plant canopy by measuring the covariance between fluctuations in vertical wind velocity and CO₂ mixing ratio. Two decades ago, the method was employed to study CO₂ exchange of agricultural crops under ideal conditions during short field campaigns. During the past decade the eddy covariance method has emerged as an important tool for evaluating fluxes of carbon dioxide between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere over the course of a year, and more. At present, the method is being applied in a nearly continuous mode to study carbon dioxide and water vapor exchange at over a hundred and eighty field sites, worldwide. The objective of this review is to assess the eddy covariance method as it is being applied by the global change community on increasingly longer time scales and over less than ideal surfaces. The eddy covariance method is most accurate when the atmospheric conditions (wind, temperature, humidity, CO₂) are steady, the underlying vegetation is homogeneous and it is situated on flat terrain for an extended distance upwind. When the eddy covariance method is applied over natural and complex landscapes or during atmospheric conditions that vary with time, the quantification of CO₂ exchange between the biosphere and atmosphere must include measurements of atmospheric storage, flux divergence and advection. Averaging CO₂ flux measurements over long periods (days to year) reduces random sampling error to relatively small values. Unfortunately, data gaps are inevitable when constructing long data records. Data gaps are generally filled with values produced from statistical and empirical models to produce daily and annual sums of CO₂ exchange. Filling data gaps with empirical estimates do not introduce significant bias errors because the empirical algorithms are derived from large statistical populations. On the other hand, flux measurement errors can be biased at night when winds are light and intermittent. Nighttime bias errors tend to produce an underestimate in the measurement of ecosystem respiration. Despite the sources of errors associated with long‐term eddy flux measurements, many investigators are producing defensible estimates of annual carbon exchange. When measurements come from nearly ideal sites the error bound on the net annual exchange of CO₂ is less than ±50 g C m^?2 yr^?1. Additional confidence in long‐term measurements is growing because investigators are producing values of net ecosystem productivity that are converging with independent values produced by measuring changes in biomass and soil carbon, as long as the biomass inventory studies are conducted over multiple years.     

中国农业系统近40年温室气体排放核算

基于排放因子法构建了包含种植业和牲畜养殖业的农业系统温室气体排放核算体系,系统核算了1980-2020年我国全国尺度上的农业系统温室气体排放总量和变化趋势,并在区县级尺度下对1980、2000、2011年的中国农业系统的温室气体排放量进行核算,对比不同阶段农业系统温室气体排放变化的时空异质性规律。研究发现：1980-2020年我国农业系统温室气体排放量呈波动增长趋势,增长了近46%。CH₄是农业系统排放贡献最大的温室气体,占总排放量的47.33%。我国农业系统温室气体排放与不同地区农业生产方式有关,CH₄排放量高的地区主要位于我国主要水稻产区以及旱地作物产区。CO₂排放量高的地区主要位于东北、西北等地区以及华东地区。N₂O排放量较高地区主要位于西北的主要畜牧养殖地区,以及我国农业经济发展水平高的中南部地区。研究有助于揭示我国农业温室气体排放的动态特征,现状规律,以及空间差异性特征,从农业减排角度为实现双碳目标提供科学参考。     

Trace gas exchange over terrestrial ecosystems: methods and perspectives in micrometeorology

Quantification of the surface-atmosphere exchange of trace gasesis recognized as an essential prerequisite to understandingthe role of the biosphere in the global climate system. Amongthe micrometeorological methods available to measure surface-atmospherefluxes, the aerodynamic gradient, the energy balance/Bowen ratio,the eddy covariance and the eddy accumulation methods are themost widely employed. This brief review describes the theoreticalbackground and the practical applications of these methodologiesand is particularly directed to plant ecophysiologists, ecologistsand botanists who may be interested in scaling biological processesto the canopy level. Key words: Trace gas exchange, biosphere, surface-atmosphere fluxes, aerodynamic gradient, Bowen ratio, eddy covariance, eddy accumulation, micrometeorology     

Greenhouse gas budget (CO2, CH4 and N2O) of intensively managed grassland following restoration

The first full greenhouse gas (GHG) flux budget of an intensively managed grassland in Switzerland (Chamau) is presented. The three major trace gases, carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) were measured with the eddy covariance (EC) technique. For CO₂ concentrations, an open‐path infrared gas analyzer was used, while N₂O and CH₄ concentrations were measured with a recently developed continuous‐wave quantum cascade laser absorption spectrometer (QCLAS). We investigated the magnitude of these trace gas emissions after grassland restoration, including ploughing, harrowing, sowing, and fertilization with inorganic and organic fertilizers in 2012. Large peaks of N₂O fluxes (20–50 nmol m^?2 s^?1 compared with a <5 nmol m^?2 s^?1 background) were observed during thawing of the soil after the winter period and after mineral fertilizer application followed by re‐sowing in the beginning of the summer season. Nitrous oxide (N₂O) fluxes were controlled by nitrogen input, plant productivity, soil water content and temperature. Management activities led to increased variations of N₂O fluxes up to 14 days after the management event as compared with background fluxes measured during periods without management (<5 nmol m^?2 s^?1). Fluxes of CO₂ remained small until full plant development in early summer 2012. In contrast, methane emissions showed only minor variations over time. The annual GHG flux budget was dominated by N₂O (48% contribution) and CO₂ emissions (44%). CH₄ flux contribution to the annual budget was only minor (8%). We conclude that recently developed multi‐species QCLAS in an EC system open new opportunities to determine the temporal variation of N₂O and CH₄ fluxes, which further allow to quantify annual emissions. With respect to grassland restoration, our study emphasizes the key role of N₂O and CO₂ losses after ploughing, changing a permanent grassland from a carbon sink to a significant carbon source.     

Aerial short-range dispersion of volatilized pesticides from an area source

Owing to legal provisions, pesticides have to be applied in such a way that there is no unacceptable influence on human health and the environment at nearby non-target areas. In order to quantify their concentration over and downwind of agricultural target plots of 0.5-1 ha, covered by winter wheat and winter barely, the pesticides lindane, parathion and pirimicarb were applied. Over these plots the post-application volatilization rates of the pesticides were estimated indirectly from vertical concentration, wind and temperature profile measurements using the aerodynamic gradient technique. Philip's advection model was applied to take non-favourable fetch conditions into account. In addition, at a height of 1.6 m downwind of the area source, measurements of the horizontal concentration profile were made up to a distance of about 250 m at roughly 50-m intervals. The monitoring started immediately after spraying in the morning and continued for about 8-10 h, thus providing a worst-case situation because volatilization, and therefore pesticide concentration in the atmospheric surface layer, is then strongest. The concentration of the airborne pesticides over the downwind non-target area was also calculated by Philip's advection model. By using the Nash-Sutcliffe relative-difference measure between observed and calculated concentrations, a goodness-of-fit of 0.97 was obtained over the downwind non-target area, indicating that the Philip model is well suited for dispersion estimates in the near-field range.     

The relative merits of open- and closed-path analysers for measurement of eddy fluxes

Theoretical and practical aspects of measuring eddy fluxes of trace gases using open-and closed-path analysers are presented. Trace gas fluxes measured with an open-path analyser require the concurrent measurement of sensible and latent heat fluxes to correct for density fluctuations in trace gas concentration caused by these fluxes. A closed-path analyser eliminates the corrections due to sensible heat flux, but not for water vapour, provided temperature fluctuations are completely removed without significantly reducing fluctuations in the trace gas mixing ratio. Theory for the design of heat exchangers and for the attenuation of concentration fluctuations during air flow through tubes is used to provide design criteria for closed-path systems. Spectral transfer functions are used to estimate flux losses caused by flow through the sampling tube and gas analyser. Other factors considered include cross-sensitivity of infrared CO₂ analysers to water vapour, and deterioration of system performance caused by contaminants on the walls of sampling tubes. Of two open-path, infrared CO₂ analysers tested, one showed a strong interaction between CO₂ and water vapour, while the other showed little sensitivity to the presence of water vapour, other than caused by dilution. A commercial closed-path CO₂ analyser also showed little cross-sensitivity to water vapour. Compared to results for a clean sampling tube, the spectral bandwidth for water vapour fluctuations decreased significantly after several weeks of sampling. No such deterioration in bandwidth was observed for CO₂. These findings are attributed to differential adsorption/desorption of water vapour by dust or salt on the tubing walls. Rain and dust must be removed from open-path analysers to obtain satisfactory measurements. Careful system design and maintenance is required for both open- and closed-path systems to ensure satisfactory long-term measurement of trace gas fluxes. With these precautions, both approaches will provide satisfactory flux measurements.     

Estimation of viable airborne microbes downwind from a point source.

Modification of the Pasquill atmospheric diffusion equations for estimating viable microbial airborne cell concentrations downwind form a continuous point source is presented. A graphical method is given to estimate the ground level cell concentration given (i) microbial death rate, (ii) mean wind speed, (iii) atmospheric stability class, (iv) downwind sample distance from the source, and (v) source height.     

温带混交林碳水通量模拟及其对冠层分层方式的响应——耦合的气孔导度-光合作用-能量平衡模型

利用Leuning建立的耦合的光合作用、气孔导度和能量平衡方程,以将冠层分成多层的方式,包括Gaussian五点积分法、将冠层平均分为多层的方法,逐层计算温带混交林的碳水通量,最后累加至冠层尺度,以模拟CO2和H2O通量。该模型以常规气象观测数据作为驱动变量,计算出冠层与大气之间的碳水交换,与涡动相关系统的通量观测数据进行比较,分析了不同的冠层分层方式对多层模型模拟结果的影响。从3个温带混交林通量站涡动相关系统的能量平衡闭合度来看,中国长白山站CBS、韩国GDK和日本MMF站点的能量平衡比率(EBR)分别为0.76、0.66和1.07,居于国际同类观测范围(0.34—1.2)的中上水平,因此,涡动相关系统的观测数据较为可靠。从碳水通量的日变化来看,用Gaussian五点积分法将冠层分为五层的模型能较好的模拟碳水通量的"单峰形"日变化趋势。夜间Fc为负值且变化趋势较为平缓,表明生态系统进行呼吸作用释放CO2,从日出开始Fc逐渐变为正值,表明生态系统进行光合作用吸收CO2,Fc在中午时分达到最大值,下午Fc逐渐减小,日落之后又回复到夜间的负值。H2O通量的日变化曲线与CO2通量相似,且模拟值与涡动相关实测值具有较好的一致性。在多层模型中,对冠层采用不同的分层方法,对碳水通量模拟结果有一定的影响。以Gaussian五点积分法将冠层分为五层的方法作为对照,分别将冠层平均分为2、5、10、20层的方法得到的碳水通量与其进行比较。从平均值来看,分层越多,H2O通量模拟值越低,而CO2通量模拟值越高。不同的分层方法产生的差异,主要来自于不同层的辐射吸收、温湿度、风速等环境要素的垂直廓线差异,且叶片光合作用对光的响应是非线性的。     

陆地生态系统碳水通量贡献区评价综述

综述了通量贡献区研究的基本理论、最新进展、研究热点与难点,旨在促进中国区域碳水通量数据空间代表性的定量评价.通量贡献区是通量观测点上风向的空间代表区域,能够反映代表区域对应下垫面的源区内每一点对观测点的通量贡献权重影响,主要受观测高度、空气动力学粗糙度和大气稳定度等因素的影响.通量贡献区通常随着观测高度的增加、空气动力学粗糙度的降低和大气稳定度的增加而变大,反之则变小.通量贡献区的评价模型包括解析模型、拉格朗日随机模型、大涡模拟和闭合模型四类.通量贡献区的评价结果可以广泛应用于通量数据质量评价、实验设计的指导、与遥感技术结合的区域尺度的总初级生产力的估算、城市CO2通量变化的评估以及能量闭合的评价等研究.最新研究表明,对流边界层的通量贡献区存在负的通量贡献区域;有裸地存在的情况下解析模型通常会低估裸地对观测通量的贡献;与水平地面处的通量贡献区相比,山谷处通量贡献区变小而山脊处的通量贡献区变大.通量贡献区模型研究应进一步考虑大气中的平流效应、湍流的非高斯扩散以及建立冠层内部的通量贡献区模型.解决森林冠层内流场的不均匀性、冠层重叠问题、冠层湍流的不稳定性是建立适合冠层内部通量贡献区模型的前提条件.在理想条件的气体释放验证试验的基础上,需要开展复杂条件下的相关试验.     

Soil properties and sediment accretion modulate methane fluxes from restored wetlands

Wetlands are the largest source of methane (CH₄) globally, yet our understanding of how process‐level controls scale to ecosystem fluxes remains limited. It is particularly uncertain how variable soil properties influence ecosystem CH₄ emissions on annual time scales. We measured ecosystem carbon dioxide (CO₂) and CH₄ fluxes by eddy covariance from two wetlands recently restored on peat and alluvium soils within the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta of California. Annual CH₄ fluxes from the alluvium wetland were significantly lower than the peat site for multiple years following restoration, but these differences were not explained by variation in dominant climate drivers or productivity across wetlands. Soil iron (Fe) concentrations were significantly higher in alluvium soils, and alluvium CH₄ fluxes were decoupled from plant processes compared with the peat site, as expected when Fe reduction inhibits CH₄ production in the rhizosphere. Soil carbon content and CO₂ uptake rates did not vary across wetlands and, thus, could also be ruled out as drivers of initial CH₄ flux differences. Differences in wetland CH₄ fluxes across soil types were transient; alluvium wetland fluxes were similar to peat wetland fluxes 3 years after restoration. Changing alluvium CH₄ emissions with time could not be explained by an empirical model based on dominant CH₄ flux biophysical drivers, suggesting that other factors, not measured by our eddy covariance towers, were responsible for these changes. Recently accreted alluvium soils were less acidic and contained more reduced Fe compared with the pre‐restoration parent soils, suggesting that CH₄ emissions increased as conditions became more favorable to methanogenesis within wetland sediments. This study suggests that alluvium soil properties, likely Fe content, are capable of inhibiting ecosystem‐scale wetland CH₄ flux, but these effects appear to be transient without continued input of alluvium to wetland sediments.     

北京城郊地区二氧化碳通量特征

利用位于北京市顺义气象局45 m气象塔上36 m高度的湍流观测资料,对该区域2008年11月1日至2009年10月31日共365d的二氧化碳通量(CO2)的时间变化和各方位的分布特征进行了分析研究,并计算了CO2年排放量。结果表明,CO2受交通因素和居民日常生活排放的影响较小,冬季耗能取暖会显著增加CO2的排放量;受供暖排放和植物生长季节光合作用的影响,冬季的CO2通量值在全天绝大多数时刻均高于其他季节,其日平均值为15.6μmol m-2s-1,显著高于春、夏、秋季的日平均值5.6、5.7和8.8μmol m-2s-1(t-test,P0.001)。各方向CO2通量值的大小与其源区内土地利用/覆盖方式以及建筑物的使用功能和使用性质密切相关,住宅楼、饭店、工厂、旅馆等人工建筑面积占比例越大,CO2排放量越大;而植被覆盖比例较高的方向CO2值较小。观测点周边区域是CO2的排放源,且年平均排放量达到13.6 kg m-2a-1,但低于同一时期北京市内高密度住宅区域的CO2年排放量。     

Quantifying Beetle-Mediated Effects on Gas Fluxes from Dung Pats

Agriculture is one of the largest contributors of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHGs) responsible for global warming. Measurements of gas fluxes from dung pats suggest that dung is a source of GHGs, but whether these emissions are modified by arthropods has not been studied. A closed chamber system was used to measure the fluxes of carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) from dung pats with and without dung beetles on a grass sward. The presence of dung beetles significantly affected the fluxes of GHGs from dung pats. Most importantly, fresh dung pats emitted higher amounts of CO₂ and lower amounts of CH₄ per day in the presence than absence of beetles. Emissions of N₂O showed a distinct peak three weeks after the start of the experiment – a pattern detected only in the presence of beetles. When summed over the main grazing season (June–July), total emissions of CH₄ proved significantly lower, and total emissions of N₂O significantly higher in the presence than absence of beetles. While clearly conditional on the experimental conditions, the patterns observed here reveal a potential impact of dung beetles on gas fluxes realized at a small spatial scale, and thereby suggest that arthropods may have an overall effect on gas fluxes from agriculture. Dissecting the exact mechanisms behind these effects, mapping out the range of conditions under which they occur, and quantifying effect sizes under variable environmental conditions emerge as key priorities for further research.     

城市复杂环境中碳通量日变化规律及其影响因素

城市是人类居住和活动最集中地区,其CO₂排放量占世界总排放量的71%,城市碳排放规律研究对全球碳减排工作具有重要意义。利用涡动相关技术观测了北京市某街区2015年至2016年的CO₂通量,重点研究了不同时间尺度和气象条件下的CO₂通量的日变化规律,分析了影响城市CO₂通量的社会及自然因素。结果表明,CO₂通量日变化特征具有（1）明显的早晚"双峰型"特征,早晚高峰分别出现在早上7：30-9：30和晚上17：30-20：30;（2）周末特征：周末早高峰时间延迟,晚于工作日约1.5h,且峰值低了约10.8%,但晚高峰时间提前,且峰值高于工作日约10.6%;（3）季节特征：冬季CO₂通量均值和早高峰值明显高于其他季节,夏季中午具有明显低峰区;（4）风向特征：在不同来风方向上,CO₂通量的日变化峰值差异很大;（5）天气特征：阴天双峰特征比晴天明显。研究表明CO₂通量日变化主要与交通流量动态变化关系最为密切,其次要受到植被的影响。因此,交通减排和植被增汇对于控制城市碳排放具有重要意义。     

Characteristics of canopy evapotranspiration from a small heterogeneous grassland using thermal imaging

We used thermal imaging in conjunction with the eddy covariance technique to characterize canopy evapotranspiration (ET) from a small heterogeneous grassland. We compared ET estimated by a simple soil–vegetation–atmosphere transfer (SVAT) at field scale (a few 100 m²) with that estimated by the eddy covariance method. These two independent estimates of ET showed a good correlation when the flux source area was the same. However, whereas the eddy covariance method yielded integrated results over a large, variable landscape area, the SVAT model primarily yielded values reflecting just the grassland area. We estimated mapped transpiration (Tr) at a point scale (1 m²) and showed that Tr increased linearly with increasing leaf area index (LAI). Although stomatal conductance of C₃ plants was appreciably larger than that of C₄ plants at the leaf scale, this difference was not reflected in Tr at the canopy scale. Tr may be more sensitive to aerodynamic conditions (wind speed and radiation) or environmental heterogeneity (soil–water) than stomatal conductance. The SVAT model clarified variations in the spatial distribution of Tr over a heterogeneous grassland.