Changes in soil greenhouse gas fluxes by land use change from primary forest

Primary forest conversion is a worldwide serious problem associated with human disturbance and climate change. Land use change from primary forest to plantation, grassland or agricultural land may lead to profound alteration in the emission of soil greenhouse gases (GHG). Here, we conducted a global meta‐analysis concerning the effects of primary forest conversion on soil GHG emissions and explored the potential mechanisms from 101 studies. Our results showed that conversion of primary forest significantly decreased soil CO₂ efflux and increased soil CH₄ efflux, but had no effect on soil N₂O efflux. However, the effect of primary forest conversion on soil GHG emissions was not consistent across different types of land use change. For example, soil CO₂ efflux did not respond to the conversion from primary forest to grassland. Soil N₂O efflux showed a prominent increase within the initial stage after conversion of primary forest and then decreased over time while the responses of soil CO₂ and CH₄ effluxes were consistently negative or positive across different elapsed time intervals. Moreover, either within or across all types of primary forest conversion, the response of soil CO₂ efflux was mainly moderated by changes in soil microbial biomass carbon and root biomass while the responses of soil N₂O and CH₄ effluxes were related to the changes in soil nitrate and soil aeration‐related factors (soil water content and bulk density), respectively. Collectively, our findings highlight the significant effects of primary forest conversion on soil GHG emissions, enhance our knowledge on the potential mechanisms driving these effects and improve future models of soil GHG emissions after land use change from primary forest.     

土壤磷含量与有效性对N2O排放量的影响元分析

土壤氧化亚氮(N₂O)主要产生于土壤微生物参与的氮循环过程,其排放量受磷含量及有效性影响。添加磷肥有助于缓解陆地生态系统磷限制,提升土壤有效磷含量,进一步影响土壤微生物对氮的利用,同时控制N₂O排放。然而不同独立实验中N₂O对外源磷添加的响应差异较大。研究从发表的中、英文文献中收集了54份关于施用磷肥与N₂O排放量的观测结果,采用元分析方法确定添加外源磷后N₂O排放量的响应差异及潜在影响因素。结果表明：(1)外源磷添加对土壤N₂O排放量影响不显著;但在磷肥施用量> 50 kg P/hm²的室外实验中土壤N₂O排放量显著降低了32.5%;施用NaH₂PO₄的室内实验中N₂O排放量显著降低了18.4%。(2)土壤N₂O对外源磷添加响应的高变异性是磷肥施用量和土壤含水量、土壤pH、土地利用类型、磷肥种类、纬度和实验时间多种影响...     

施肥对板栗林地土壤N2O通量动态变化的影响

2011年6月—2012年6月期间,在浙江省临安市典型板栗林地进行施肥对土壤N2O通量变化影响的试验研究。目的在于探明不同施肥处理下板栗林地土壤N2O通量的动态变化规律,并探讨土壤N2O通量和土壤环境因子之间的关系。试验设置4个处理:对照(不施肥)、无机肥、有机肥、有机无机混合肥。采用静态箱-气相色谱法测定了板栗林地土壤N2O通量,并测定了土壤温度、水分、水溶性有机碳(WSOC)和微生物量碳(MBC)含量。结果表明:板栗林土壤N2O通量呈显著季节性变化,最大值出现在夏季,最小值出现在冬季;而且,施肥处理显著提高土壤N2O年均通量和年累积量;在整个试验期间,无机肥、有机肥和有机无机混合肥处理下土壤N2O的排放系数分别达到0.96%、1.45%和1.29%。此外,施肥也显著增加了土壤WSOC和MBC的含量(P<0.05)。不同施肥处理条件下,土壤N2O通量与土壤5 cm处温度、WSOC含量间均呈极显著正相关(P<0.01),但与MBC含量之间的相关性不显著。土壤N2O排放与土壤含水量间除对照处理外均没有显著相关性。综上所述,施肥引起土壤WSOC含量的增加可能是施肥增加板栗林地土壤N2O排放速率的主要原因之一。     

DenNit – Experimental analysis and modelling of soil N2O efflux in response on changes of soil water content, soil temperature, soil pH, nutrient availability and the time after rain event

To quantify the effects of soil temperature (T_soil), and relative soil water content (RSWC) on soil N₂O emission we measured N₂O soil efflux with a closed dynamic chamber in situ in the field and from soil cores in a controlled climate chamber experiment. Additionally we analysed the effect of soil acidity, ammonium, and nitrate concentration in the field. The analysis was performed on three meadows, two bare soils and in one forest. We identified soil water content, soil temperature, soil nitrogen content, and pH as the main parameters influencing soil N₂O emission. The response of N₂O emission to soil temperature and relative soil water content was analysed for the field and climate chamber measurements. A non-linear regression model (DenNit) was developed for the field data to describe soil N₂O efflux as a function of soil temperature, soil moisture, pH value, and ammonium and nitrate concentration. The model could explain 81% of the variability in soil N₂O emission of all individual field measurements, except for data with short-term soil water changes, namely during and up to 2 h after rain stopped. We validated the model with an independent dataset. For this additional meadow site 73% of the flux variation could be explained with the model.     

Meta‐analysis of global livestock urine‐derived nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) is an air pollutant of major environmental concern, with agriculture representing 60% of anthropogenic global N₂O emissions. Much of the N₂O emissions from livestock production systems result from transformation of N deposited to soil within animal excreta. There exists a substantial body of literature on urine patch N₂O dynamics, we aimed to identify key controlling factors influencing N₂O emissions and to aid understanding of knowledge gaps to improve GHG reporting and prioritize future research. We conducted an extensive literature review and random effect meta‐analysis (using REML) of results to identify key relationships between multiple potential independent factors and global N₂O emissions factors (EFs) from urine patches. Mean air temperature, soil pH and ruminant animal species (sheep or cow) were significant factors influencing the EFs reviewed. However, several factors that are known to influence N₂O emissions, such as animal diet and urine composition, could not be considered due to the lack of reported data. The review highlighted a widespread tendency for inadequate metadata and uncertainty reporting in the published studies, as well as the limited geographical extent of investigations, which are more often conducted in temperate regions thus far. Therefore, here we give recommendations for factors that are likely to affect the EFs and should be included in all future studies, these include the following: soil pH and texture; experimental set‐up; direct measurement of soil moisture and temperature during the study period; amount and composition of urine applied; animal type and diet; N₂O emissions with a measure of uncertainty; data from a control with zero‐N application and meteorological data.     

Hydrological and biogeochemical controls on the timing and magnitude of nitrous oxide flux across an agricultural landscape

Anticipated increases in precipitation intensity due to climate change may affect hydrological controls on soil N₂O fluxes, resulting in a feedback between climate change and soil greenhouse gas emissions. We evaluated soil hydrologic controls on N₂O emissions during experimental water table fluctuations in large, intact soil columns amended with 100 kg ha^?1 KNO₃‐N. Soil columns were collected from three landscape positions that vary in hydrological and biogeochemical properties (N= 12 columns). We flooded columns from bottom to surface to simulate water table fluctuations that are typical for this site, and expected to increase given future climate change scenarios. After the soil was saturated to the surface, we allowed the columns to drain freely while monitoring volumetric soil water content, matric potential and N₂O emissions over 96 h. Across all landscape positions and replicate soil columns, there was a positive linear relationship between total soil N and the log of cumulative N₂O emissions (r²= 0.47; P= 0.013). Within individual soil columns, N₂O flux was a Gaussian function of water‐filled pore space (WFPS) during drainage (mean r²= 0.90). However, instantaneous maximum N₂O flux rates did not occur at a consistent WFPS, ranging from 63% to 98% WFPS across landscape positions and replicate soil columns. In contrast, instantaneous maximum N₂O flux rates occurred within a narrow range (?1.88 to ?4.48 kPa) of soil matric potential that approximated field capacity. The relatively consistent relationship between maximum N₂O flux rates and matric potential indicates that water filled pore size is an important factor affecting soil N₂O fluxes. These data demonstrate that matric potential is the strongest predictor of the timing of N₂O fluxes across soils that differ in texture, structure and bulk density.     

Mechanisms of carbon and nutrient release and retention in beech forest gaps

Fluxes of CO₂ and N₂O were measured along a microclimatic gradient stretching from the centre of a gap into a mature beech stand using an automated chamber method. Simultaneously the regulating factors like soil water tensions, soil temperatures, nitrate concentrations were measured along the gradient. The daily mean values of the fluxes of CO₂ and N₂O were divided into classes of temperature and furthermore subdivided into classes of soil water tension to assess the significance of each regulating factor.Soil respiration at the centre of the gap was 40% lower compared to the rooted mature stand. The difference was explained by root respiration. At both sites soil respiration was primarily controlled by the soil temperature with an average Q₁₀ value of 2.3 over the different classes of temperature and soil water tension. Soil water tension reduced the soil respiration by up to 20% only by soil water tension above 400–600 hPa at the mature stand. The formation of N₂O was reduced when the soil temperature was below 10°C or the soil water tension exceeded 200 hPa. Therefore the N₂O emission was 6 times higher at the unrooted centre of the gap due to the high moisture content in the growing season. Higher nitrate concentration doubled the N₂O emission at the unrooted edge of the canopy and resulted in losses of 6.4 kg N ha^-1 within six months. Above 10°C and below 200 hPa the N₂O emission depended strongly upon the temperature with varying Q₁₀ values over the different classes of temperature and soil water tension. High Q₁₀ values up to 14.4 have been calculated below 14°C and were explained by several processes with synergetic effects.     

Influence of experimental extreme water pulses on greenhouse gas emissions from soils

Climate models predict increased frequency and intensity of storm events, but it is unclear how extreme precipitation events influence the dynamics of soil fluxes for multiple greenhouse gases (GHGs). Intact soil mesocosms (0–10 cm depth) from a temperate forested watershed in the piedmont region of Maryland [two upland forest soils, and two hydric soils (i.e., wetland, creek bank)] were exposed to experimental water pulses with periods of drying, forcing soils towards extreme wet conditions under controlled temperature. Automated measurements (hourly resolution) of soil CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O fluxes were coupled with porewater chemistry analyses (i.e., pH, Eh, Fe, S, NO₃ ^?), and polymerase chain reaction–denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis to characterize changes in microbial community structure. Automated measurements quantified unexpected increases in emissions up to 245% for CO₂ (Wetland), >23,000% for CH₄ (Creek), and >110,000% for N₂O (Forest Soils) following pulse events. The Creek soil produced the highest soil CO₂ emissions, the Wetland soil produced the highest CH₄ emissions, and the Forest soils produced the highest N₂O emissions during the experiment. Using carbon dioxide equivalencies of the three GHGs, we determined the Creek soil contributed the most to a 20-year global warming potential (GWP; 30.3%). Forest soils contributed the most to the 100-year GWP (up to 53.7%) as a result of large N₂O emissions. These results provide insights on the influence of extreme wet conditions on porewater chemistry and factors controlling soil GHGs fluxes. Finally, this study addresses the need to test biogeochemical thresholds and responses of ecosystem functions to climate extremes.     

Can biochar reduce soil greenhouse gas emissions from a Miscanthus bioenergy crop?

Energy production from bioenergy crops may significantly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through substitution of fossil fuels. Biochar amendment to soil may further decrease the net climate forcing of bioenergy crop production, however, this has not yet been assessed under field conditions. Significant suppression of soil nitrous oxide (N₂O) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions following biochar amendment has been demonstrated in short‐term laboratory incubations by a number of authors, yet evidence from long‐term field trials has been contradictory. This study investigated whether biochar amendment could suppress soil GHG emissions under field and controlled conditions in a Miscanthus × Giganteus crop and whether suppression would be sustained during the first 2 years following amendment. In the field, biochar amendment suppressed soil CO₂ emissions by 33% and annual net soil CO₂ equivalent (eq.) emissions (CO₂, N₂O and methane, CH₄) by 37% over 2 years. In the laboratory, under controlled temperature and equalised gravimetric water content, biochar amendment suppressed soil CO₂ emissions by 53% and net soil CO₂ eq. emissions by 55%. Soil N₂O emissions were not significantly suppressed with biochar amendment, although they were generally low. Soil CH₄ fluxes were below minimum detectable limits in both experiments. These findings demonstrate that biochar amendment has the potential to suppress net soil CO₂ eq. emissions in bioenergy crop systems for up to 2 years after addition, primarily through reduced CO₂ emissions. Suppression of soil CO₂ emissions may be due to a combined effect of reduced enzymatic activity, the increased carbon‐use efficiency from the co‐location of soil microbes, soil organic matter and nutrients and the precipitation of CO₂ onto the biochar surface. We conclude that hardwood biochar has the potential to improve the GHG balance of bioenergy crops through reductions in net soil CO₂ eq. emissions.     

Impacts of monoculture cropland to alley cropping agroforestry conversion on soil N2O emissions

Monoculture croplands are a major source of global anthropogenic emissions of nitrous oxide (N₂O), a potent greenhouse gas that contributes to ozone depletion. Agroforestry has the potential to reduce N₂O emissions. Presently, there is no systematic comparison of soil N₂O emissions between cropland agroforestry and monoculture systems in Central Europe. We investigated the effects of converting the monoculture cropland system into the alley cropping agroforestry system on soil N₂O fluxes at three sites (each site has paired agroforestry and monoculture) in Germany, where agroforestry combined crop rows and poplar short-rotation coppice (SRC). We measured soil N₂O fluxes monthly over 2 years (March 2018–January 2020) using static vented chambers. Annual soil N₂O emissions from agroforestry ranged from 0.21 to 2.73 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, whereas monoculture N₂O emissions ranged from 0.34 to 3.00 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. During the rotation of corn crop, with high fertilization rates, agroforestry reduced soil N₂O emissions by 9% to 56% compared to monocultures. This was mainly caused by low soil N₂O emissions from the unfertilized agroforestry tree rows. Soil N₂O fluxes were predominantly controlled by soil mineral N in both agroforestry and monoculture systems. Our findings suggest that optimized fertilizer input will further enhance the potential of agroforestry for mitigating N₂O emissions.     

雪被和土壤水分对典型半干旱草原土壤冻融过程中CO_2和N_2O排放的影响

土壤冻融期间的温室气体排放量会显著增加,并在全年总排放量中占有重要的份额。但目前开展的土壤冻融循环模拟实验大多是在土壤冻结之前调节土壤水分含量,而忽视了雪被在整个土壤冻融过程中的作用,因此导致室内模拟研究的结果与野外原位观测的结果差异较大。为探索开展室内模拟土壤冻融实验的优化方案,采用人工浇水和覆雪两种方式调节土壤水分含量,研究了雪被和土壤水分对内蒙古典型半干旱草原土壤冻融过程中CO2和N2O排放的影响。结果表明,浇水和覆雪两种处理对冻融循环过程中土壤CO2排放影响的差异不显著,CO2排放量在消融期都会明显增加并随着冻融循环次数的增加而逐渐减小。当土壤孔隙含水率达50%左右时,浇水处理中的N2O排放量在第1次土壤冻融循环中最高并随冻融循环次数增加而降低,但在覆雪处理中,N2O在第1次冻融循环中的排放较小,而在后两次冻融循环中的排放量更为显著。造成两种处理N2O排放规律出现显著不同的原因可能是土壤剖面水分动态变化过程和微生物性状等方面的差异。土壤冻融过程中CO2和N2O排放量随土壤含水量升高而增加,但N2O在土壤含水量较低时排放不明显,这表明可能只有当土壤含水量达到一定阈值时,冻融作用才会对N2O的排放产生显著影响。这些结果显示,雪被和土壤水分显著影响土壤冻融过程中的CO2和N2O排放,室内模拟土壤冻融实验应进一步优化。     

Multivariate regulation of soil CO2 and N2O pulse emissions from agricultural soils

Climate and land‐use models project increasing occurrence of high temperature and water deficit in both agricultural production systems and terrestrial ecosystems. Episodic soil wetting and subsequent drying may increase the occurrence and magnitude of pulsed biogeochemical activity, affecting carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycles and influencing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In this study, we provide the first data to explore the responses of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) fluxes to (i) temperature, (ii) soil water content as percent water holding capacity (%WHC), (iii) substrate availability throughout, and (iv) multiple soil drying and rewetting (DW) events. Each of these factors and their interactions exerted effects on GHG emissions over a range of four (CO₂) and six (N₂O) orders of magnitude. Maximal CO₂ and N₂O fluxes were observed in environments combining intermediate %WHC, elevated temperature, and sufficient substrate availability. Amendments of C and N and their interactions significantly affected CO₂ and N₂O fluxes and altered their temperature sensitivities (Q₁₀) over successive DW cycles. C amendments significantly enhanced CO₂ flux, reduced N₂O flux, and decreased the Q₁₀ of both. N amendments had no effect on CO₂ flux and increased N₂O flux, while significantly depressing the Q₁₀ for CO₂, and having no effect on the Q₁₀ for N₂O. The dynamics across DW cycles could be attributed to changes in soil microbial communities as the different responses to wetting events in specific group of microorganisms, to the altered substrate availabilities, or to both. The complex interactions among parameters influencing trace gas fluxes should be incorporated into next generation earth system models to improve estimation of GHG emissions.     

Regional application of PnET-N-DNDC for estimating the N2O source strength of tropical rainforests in the Wet Tropics of Australia

In contrast to the significant importance of tropical rainforest ecosystems as one of the major sources within the global atmospheric N₂O budget (2.2–3.7 Tg N yr^?1), regional estimates of their N₂O source strength are still limited and highly uncertain. To contribute toward more reliable estimates of the N₂O source strength of tropical rainforest ecosystems on a regional scale, we modified a process‐oriented biogeochemical model, PnET‐N‐DNDC, and parameterized it to simulate C and N turnover and associated N₂O emissions in and from tropical rainforest ecosystems. Model modifications included: (1) new parameterizations associated with plant physiology and soil hydrology and the addition of algorithms relating daily leaf litterfall to water stress as well as to daily rainfall to account for the effects of heavy rainfall damage; (2) the development of a denitrifier activity index that depends on soil moisture conditions and influences N turnover by denitrification; and (3) the addition of a biological N fixation algorithm. Daily simulated N₂O emissions based on site data were in good agreement (model efficiencies up to 0.83) with field observations in the Wet Tropics of Australia and Costa Rica. The model was even able to reproduce the highly dynamic pattern of N₂O emissions with short‐term increases during the wet season. Sensitivity analyses demonstrated that the PnET‐N‐DNDC model was sensitive to changes in soil properties such as pH, clay content, soil organic carbon and climatic factors such as rainfall and temperature. By linking the PnET‐N‐DNDC model to a geographic information systems database, tropical rainforests in a 9000 km² area of the Wet Tropics of Australia are estimated to emit 962 t N₂O‐N yr^?1 (2.4 kg N₂O‐N ha^?1 yr^?1) between July 1997 and June 1998.     

Global soil nitrous oxide emissions since the preindustrial era estimated by an ensemble of terrestrial biosphere models: Magnitude,attribution, and uncertainty

Our understanding and quantification of global soil nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions and the underlying processes remain largely uncertain. Here, we assessed the effects of multiple anthropogenic and natural factors, including nitrogen fertilizer (N) application, atmospheric N deposition, manure N application, land cover change, climate change, and rising atmospheric CO₂ concentration, on global soil N₂O emissions for the period 1861–2016 using a standard simulation protocol with seven process‐based terrestrial biosphere models. Results suggest global soil N₂O emissions have increased from 6.3 ± 1.1 Tg N₂O‐N/year in the preindustrial period (the 1860s) to 10.0 ± 2.0 Tg N₂O‐N/year in the recent decade (2007–2016). Cropland soil emissions increased from 0.3 Tg N₂O‐N/year to 3.3 Tg N₂O‐N/year over the same period, accounting for 82% of the total increase. Regionally, China, South Asia, and Southeast Asia underwent rapid increases in cropland N₂O emissions since the 1970s. However, US cropland N₂O emissions had been relatively flat in magnitude since the 1980s, and EU cropland N₂O emissions appear to have decreased by 14%. Soil N₂O emissions from predominantly natural ecosystems accounted for 67% of the global soil emissions in the recent decade but showed only a relatively small increase of 0.7 ± 0.5 Tg N₂O‐N/year (11%) since the 1860s. In the recent decade, N fertilizer application, N deposition, manure N application, and climate change contributed 54%, 26%, 15%, and 24%, respectively, to the total increase. Rising atmospheric CO₂ concentration reduced soil N₂O emissions by 10% through the enhanced plant N uptake, while land cover change played a minor role. Our estimation here does not account for indirect emissions from soils and the directed emissions from excreta of grazing livestock. To address uncertainties in estimating regional and global soil N₂O emissions, this study recommends several critical strategies for improving the process‐based simulations.     

Soil–atmosphere exchange of greenhouse gases in a Eucalyptus marginata woodland, a clover-grass pasture, and Pinus radiata and Eucalyptus globulus plantations

Soils provide the largest terrestrial carbon store, the largest atmospheric CO₂ source, the largest terrestrial N₂O source and the largest terrestrial CH₄ sink, as mediated through root and soil microbial processes. A change in land use or management can alter these soil processes such that net greenhouse gas exchange may increase or decrease. We measured soil–atmosphere exchange of CO₂, N₂O and CH₄ in four adjacent land‐use systems (native eucalypt woodland, clover‐grass pasture, Pinus radiata and Eucalyptus globulus plantation) for short, but continuous, periods between October 2005 and June 2006 using an automated trace gas measurement system near Albany in southwest Western Australia. Mean N₂O emission in the pasture was 26.6 μg N m⁻² h⁻¹, significantly greater than in the natural and managed forests (< 2.0 μg N m⁻² h⁻¹). N₂O emission from pasture soil increased after rainfall events (up to 100 μg N m⁻² h⁻¹) and as soil water content increased into winter, whereas no soil water response was detected in the forest systems. Gross nitrification through ¹⁵N isotope dilution in all land‐use systems was small at water holding capacity < 30%, and under optimum soil water conditions gross nitrification ranged between < 0.1 and 1.0 mg N kg⁻¹ h⁻¹, being least in the native woodland/eucalypt plantation < pine plantation < pasture. Forest soils were a constant CH₄ sink, up to −20 μg C m⁻² h⁻¹ in the native woodland. Pasture soil was an occasional CH₄ source, but weak CH₄ sink overall (−3 μg C m⁻² h⁻¹). There were no strong correlations (R < 0.4) between CH₄ flux and soil moisture or temperature. Soil CO₂ emissions (35–55 mg C m⁻² h⁻¹) correlated with soil water content (R < 0.5) in all but the E. globulus plantation. Soil N₂O emissions from improved pastures can be considerable and comparable with intensively managed, irrigated and fertilised dairy pastures. In all land uses, soil N₂O emissions exceeded soil CH₄ uptake on a carbon dioxide equivalent basis. Overall, afforestation of improved pastures (i) decreases soil N₂O emissions and (ii) increases soil CH₄ uptake.     

水肥一体化条件下设施菜地的N2O排放

在保证作物产量的前提下,研究减少农田土壤N_2O排放的水肥统筹管理措施对全球温室气体减排具有重要意义。以京郊典型设施菜地为例,设置了农民习惯(FP)、水肥一体化(FPD)、优化水肥一体化(OPTD)和对照(CK)4个处理,采用静态箱-气相色谱法,对果菜-叶菜(黄瓜-芹菜)轮作周期内土壤N_2O排放进行了观测,并分析了氮肥施用量、灌溉方式、土壤温度和湿度等因素对土壤N_2O排放的影响。结果表明:在黄瓜-芹菜种植模式中,各施氮处理除基肥施用后N_2O排放峰持续10—15d外,一般施肥、施肥+灌溉事件后土壤N_2O排放峰均呈现3—5d短而急促的情形。黄瓜生长季N_2O排放通量与土壤湿度(WFPS)之间呈现显著相关的关系;芹菜生长季N_2O排放通量与土壤温度之间呈现显著相关的关系。观测期内FP处理N_2O排放量为(31.00±2.15)kg N/hm~2,FPD处理与之相比N_2O排放量减少了4.2%,而OPTD处理在减少40%化肥氮量的情况下,N_2O累积排放量比FP处理减少了42.7%,且达到显著水平。说明在水肥一体化条件下,合理改变施肥体系是减少N_2O排放的前提,在此基础上进行水肥优化是设施菜地保持产量、减少N_2O排放的重要技术措施。     

Response of CH4 and N2O Emissions and Wheat Yields to Tillage Method Changes in the North China Plain

The objective of this study was to quantify soil methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions when converting from minimum and no-tillage systems to subsoiling (tilled soil to a depth of 40 cm to 45 cm) in the North China Plain. The relationships between CH₄ and N₂O flux and soil temperature, moisture, NH₄ ⁺-N, organic carbon (SOC) and pH were investigated over 18 months using a split-plot design. The soil absorption of CH₄ appeared to increase after conversion from no-tillage (NT) to subsoiling (NTS), from harrow tillage (HT) to subsoiling (HTS) and from rotary tillage (RT) to subsoiling (RTS). N₂O emissions also increased after conversion. Furthermore, after conversion to subsoiling, the combined global warming potential (GWP) of CH₄ and N₂O increased by approximately 0.05 kg CO₂ ha⁻¹ for HTS, 0.02 kg CO₂ ha⁻¹ for RTS and 0.23 kg CO₂ ha⁻¹ for NTS. Soil temperature, moisture, SOC, NH₄ ⁺-N and pH also changed after conversion to subsoiling. These changes were correlated with CH₄ uptake and N₂O emissions. However, there was no significant correlation between N₂O emissions and soil temperature in this study. The grain yields of wheat improved after conversion to subsoiling. Under HTS, RTS and NTS, the average grain yield was elevated by approximately 42.5%, 27.8% and 60.3% respectively. Our findings indicate that RTS and HTS would be ideal rotation tillage systems to balance GWP decreases and grain yield improvements in the North China Plain region.     

Global analysis of nitrification inhibitors on grasslands nitrous oxide emission rates

Field studies have tested the effectiveness of nitrification inhibitors in reducing grassland soil nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions. However, the magnitude of the effects on N₂O emission rates across global grasslands remains unclear owing to its spatial heterogeneity. In this study, we synthesized 40 datasets from 23 published studies. The meta-analysis revealed that effect size of nitrification inhibitors was −0.59 ± 0.07 (95% confidence interval: −0.73 to −0.46). The mitigation effect on global grassland N₂O emission rates was approximately 44.56%. Meanwhile, dicyandiamide (DCD) and 3,4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP) decreased grassland N₂O emission rates by 48.31% and 32.97%, respectively (P < 0.05). The mixed effects models indicated that total nitrogen, soil bulk and air temperature were the main controlling factors, which explained 42.79%, 40.70%, and 18.59% of the variation in effect size, respectively. Considering global warming, there is considerable potential benefit from mitigating grassland N₂O emissions through the application of DCD and DMPP.     

Afforestation does not necessarily reduce nitrous oxide emissions from managed boreal peat soils

Pristine peatlands have generally low nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions but drainage and management practices enhance the microbial processes and associated N₂O emissions. It is assumed that leaving peat soils from intensive management, such as agriculture, will decrease their N₂O emissions. In this paper we report how the annual N₂O emission rates will change when agricultural peat soil is either left abandoned or afforested and also N₂O emissions from afforested peat extraction sites. In addition, we evaluated a biogeochemical model (DNDC) with a view to explaining GHG emissions from peat soils under different land uses. The abandoned agricultural peat soils had lower mean annual N₂O emissions (5.5?±?5.4?kg?N?ha^?1) than the peat soils in active agricultural use in Finland. Surprisingly, N₂O emissions from afforested organic agricultural soils (12.8?±?9.4?kg?N?ha^?1) were similar to those from organic agricultural soils in active use. These emissions were much higher than those from the forests on nutrient rich peat soils. Abandoned and afforested peat extraction sites emitted more N₂O, (2.4?±?2.1?kg?N?ha^?1), than the areas under active peat extraction (0.7?±?0.5?kg?N?ha^?1). Emissions outside the growing season contributed significantly, 40% on an average, to the annual emissions. The DNDC model overestimated N₂O emission rates during the growing season and indicated no emissions during winter. The differences in the N₂O emission rates were not associated with the age of the land use change, vegetation characteristics, peat depth or peat bulk density. The highest N₂O emissions occurred when the soil C:N ratio was below 20 with a significant variability within the measured C:N range (13–27). Low soil pH, high nitrate availability and water table depth (50–70?cm) were also associated with high N₂O emissions. Mineral soil has been added to most of the soils studied here to improve the fertility and this may have an impact on the N₂O emissions. We infer from the multi-site dataset presented in this paper that afforestation is not necessarily an efficient way to reduce N₂O emissions from drained boreal organic fields.     

Soil nitrous oxide emissions following crop residue addition: a meta‐analysis

Annual production of crop residues has reached nearly 4 billion metric tons globally. Retention of this large amount of residues on agricultural land can be beneficial to soil C sequestration. Such potential impacts, however, may be offset if residue retention substantially increases soil emissions of N₂O, a potent greenhouse gas and ozone depletion substance. Residue effects on soil N₂O emissions have gained considerable attention since early 1990s; yet, it is still a great challenge to predict the magnitude and direction of soil N₂O emissions following residue amendment. Here, we used a meta‐analysis to assess residue impacts on soil N₂O emissions in relation to soil and residue attributes, i.e., soil pH, soil texture, soil water content, residue C and N input, and residue C : N ratio. Residue effects were negatively associated with C : N ratios, but generally residue amendment could not reduce soil N₂O emissions, even for C : N ratios well above ca. 30, the threshold for net N immobilization. Residue effects were also comparable to, if not greater than, those of synthetic N fertilizers. In addition, residue effects on soil N₂O emissions were positively related to the amounts of residue C input as well as residue effects on soil CO₂ respiration. Furthermore, most significant and stimulatory effects occurred at 60–90% soil water‐filled pore space and soil pH 7.1–7.8. Stimulatory effects were also present for all soil textures except sand or clay content ≤10%. However, inhibitory effects were found for soils with >90% water‐filled pore space. Altogether, our meta‐analysis suggests that crop residues played roles beyond N supply for N₂O production. Perhaps, by stimulating microbial respiration, crop residues enhanced oxygen depletion and therefore promoted anaerobic conditions for denitrification and N₂O production. Our meta‐analysis highlights the necessity to connect the quantity and quality of crop residues with soil properties for predicting soil N₂O emissions.