Blood parasites of birds on the White Sea-Baltic migration route. 4. The ecological aspect

The effect of some ecological factors on the infection of birds with blood Protozoa was studied. Most favourable conditions for circulation of Haemoproteidae on the Kurish Spit were recorded in July. The possibility of the infection of young small passerine birds from the first broods with Haemoproteidae is most high first of all at the expense of their longer stay in the nesting territory in the period of the active transport of parasites. The presence of Leucocytozoidae in Kurish populations is explained mainly by the distribution of birds. The registration of Leucocytozoidae from birds on the Kurish Spit in spring and autumn is the result of the flight of extensively infected northern populations. It is noted that a constant change in the populational composition of the ornithofauna during seasonal migrations should be taken into account when studying the parasites of wild birds. Otherwise the characteristic features of the circulation of parasites in the region in question can be distorted as a result of the overlap of data on the infection of birds of different populations. The dependence of the infection on sex and size of birds--hosts and the role of the nesting period in the distribution of some Haemosporidia are analysed.     

Effect of global warming on the timing of migration and breeding of passerine birds in the 20th century

Long-term monitoring of the dates of arrival, breeding, and autumn migration in 25 passerine bird species on the Kurshskaya (Courland) Spit, the Baltic Sea, has shown that spring migration and nesting in most species wintering in Europe or Africa have shifted to earlier dates in the past two decades, whereas the dates of autumn migration in most species studied have not changed significantly. In 16 bird species, a significant negative correlation of the timing of arrival and breeding with the average spring air temperature and the North Atlantic Oscillation index (NAO) in February and March was revealed. In years with early and warm springs, birds arrived at the spit and nested considerably earlier than in years with cold springs. The dates of autumn migration in most species studied largely depended on the timing of nesting but not on weather conditions in autumn. The data obtained indicate that the main factor responsible for long-term changes in the timing of arrival, nesting, and autumn migrations of passerine birds in the Baltic Region is climate fluctuations that led to considerable changes in thermal conditions in the Northern Hemisphere in the 20th century. The hypothesis is proposed that recent climate warming has caused changes in the timing of not only the arrival of birds in Europe but also of their spring migrations from Africa. Further changes in the dates of passerine bird arrival and breeding in the Palearctic in subsequent years will largely depend on the dynamics of winter and spring air temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere, whereas the timing of autumn migrations will be determined mainly by the dates of their arrival and nesting.     

Leucocytozoon (Apicomplexa: Leucocytozoidae) from West African birds, with descriptions of two species

Five species of Leucocytozoon were recovered from 35/828 birds of 95 species examined from 6 sites in West Africa between May 1995 and June 2001. Leucocytozoon pogoniuli n. sp. is described from the tinker barbets Pogoniulus subsulphureus and Pogoniulus atroflavus. Leucocytozoon trachyphoni n. sp. is described from the barbet Trachyphonus purpureus. No leucocytozoids have been reported previously in species of Pogoniulus. Leucocytozoon nectariniae was identified from the sunbird Nectarinia olivacea, and Leucocytozoon brimonti was recovered from 4 species of Pycnonotidae (bulbuls), all of which are new host records. We also report the first Leucocytozoon to be recovered from the phylogenetically isolated bird, Picathartes sp. (Picathartidae). This parasite is similar in appearance to Leucocytozoon sakharoffi, and probably represents a previously undescribed species. In view of the intraspecific variability and, frequently, relatively minor interspecific differences within Leucocytozoidae, we suggest that the development and application of molecular techniques would greatly advance understanding of speciation and relationships within this family.     

ON THE FORAGING METHOD OF THE BANDED GYMNOGENE

Bennett, G. F., Earlé, R. A. &; Peirce, M. A. 1993. The Leucocytozoidae of South African birds: Musophagiformes, Cuculiformes and Piciformes. Ostrich 64:73-78.

The leucocytozoids of the avian orders Musophagiformes, Cuculiformes and Piciformes are reviewed. Leucocytozoon dinizi Tendeiro, 1947 of the Musophagidae is re-described and a neohapantotype designated. Leucocytozoon centropi Fantham, 1921 is re-described and L. coccyzus Coatney &; West, 1938 is synonymized with it and a neohapantotype designated. Leucocytozoon squamatus Nandi, 1986 of the Pi-cidae is re-described and compared with Leucocytozoon capitonis n. sp. of the piciform family Capitonidae.     

Evidence for cryptic speciation of Leucocytozoon spp. (Haemosporida, Leucocytozoidae) in diurnal raptors

Species of Leucocytozoon (Haemosporida, Leucocytozoidae) traditionally have been described based on morphological characters of their blood stages and host cells, with limited information on their avian host specificity. Based on the current taxonomy, Leucocytozoon toddi is the sole valid species of leucocytozoids parasitizing falconiform birds. Using a nested polymerase chain reaction protocol, we determined the prevalence of Leucocytozoon infection in 5 species of diurnal raptors from California. Of 591 birds tested, 177 (29.9%) were infected with Leucocytozoon toddi. Subsequent phylogenetic analysis of the cytochrome b gene revealed that distinct haplotypes are present in hawks of these genera. Haplotypes present in Buteo spp. are not found in Accipiter spp., and there is a 10.9% sequence divergence between the 2 lineage clades. In addition, Leucocytozoon sp. from Accipiter spp. from Europe group more closely with parasites found in Accipiter spp. from California than the same California Accipiter species do with their sympatric Buteo spp. Similarly, a Leucocytozoon haplotype from a Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) from Kazakhstan forms a monophyletic lineage with a parasite from B. jamaicensis from California. These results suggest that Leucocytozoon toddi is most likely a group of cryptic species, with 1 species infecting Buteo spp. and 1 or more species, or subspecies, infecting Accipiter spp.     

Blood parasites of some columbiform and passeriform birds from Chile.

Ninety-one birds of 23 species from Chile were examined for haematozoa; 13 birds of seven species harbored species of Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon, Plasmodium, Trypanosoma and microfilariae. Haemoproteids (representing four species) were the most common parasites and occurred in 10 of the 13 infected birds.     

Haemosporidian blood parasites in European birds of prey and owls

Avian blood parasites have been intensively studied using morphological methods with limited information on their host specificity and species taxonomic status. Now the analysis of gene sequences, especially the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene of the avian haemosporidian species of Haemoproteus, Plasmodium, and Leucocytozoon, offers a new tool to review the parasite specificity and status. By comparing morphological and genetic techniques, we observed nearly the same overall prevalence of haemosporidian parasites by microscopy (19.8%) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (21.8%) analyses. However, in contrast to the single valid Leucocytozoon species (L. toddi) in the Falconiformes we detected 4 clearly distinctive strains by PCR screening. In the Strigiformes, where the only valid Leucocytozoon species is L. danilewskyi, we detected 3 genetically different strains of Leucocytozoon spp. Two strains of Haemoproteus spp. were detected in the birds of prey and owls examined, whereas the strain found in the tawny owl belonged to the morphospecies Haemoproteus noctuae. Three Plasmodium spp. strains that had already been found in Passeriformes were also detected in the birds of prey and owls examined here, supporting previous findings indicating a broad and nonspecific host spectrum bridging different bird orders.     

Prevalence of avian haemosporidian parasites and their host fidelity in the central Philippine islands

We examined the prevalence and host fidelity of avian haemosporidian parasites belonging to the genera Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon and Plasmodium in the central Philippine islands by sampling 23 bird families (42 species). Using species-specific PCR assays of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene (471base pairs, bp), we detected infections in 91 of the 215 screened individuals (42%). We also discriminated between single and multiple infections. Thirty-one infected individuals harbored a single Haemoproteus lineage (14%), 18 a single Leucocytozoon lineage (8%) and 12 a single Plasmodium lineage (6%). Of the 215 screened birds, 30 (14%) presented different types of multiple infections. Intrageneric mixed infections were generally more common (18 Haemoproteus/Haemoproteus, 3 Leucocytozoon/Leucocytozoon, and 1 Plasmodium/Plasmodium) than intergeneric mixed infections (7 Haemoproteus/Leucocytozoon and 1 Haemoproteus/Leucocytozoon/Plasmodium). We recovered 81 unique haemosporidian mitochondrial haplotypes. These clustered in three strongly supported monophyletic clades that correspond to the three haemosporidian genera. Related lineages of Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon were more likely to derive from the same host family than predicted by chance; however, this was not the case for Plasmodium. These results indicate that switches between host families are more likely to occur in Plasmodium. We conclude that Haemoproteus has undergone a recent diversification across well-supported host-family specific clades, while Leucocytozoon shows a longer association with its host(s). This study supports previous evidence of a higher prevalence and stronger host-family specificity of Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon compared to Plasmodium.     

Incidence and Seasonal Variations in Blood and Tissue Parasites of Yellow-Billed Magpies

SYNOPSIS. Blood and tissue smears from 156 yellow-billed magpies showed infection with hematozoa in 154 (99%). Leucocytozoon berestneffi was found in 149 (96%), Haemoproteus picae in 40 (26%), Plasmodium relictum , in 32 (21%), Trypanosoma sp. in 3 (2%), and microfilariae in 42 (27%). Fifty-two birds were infected with two genera of parasites, 27 with 3, and 4 with 4. Leucocytozoon, Plasmodium and microfilariae showed a higher incidence in tissue than in blood smears.     

Blood parasites of some birds from Ghana

A total of 135 birds of 26 species in 13 families was examined for blood parasites; 43 birds (31.9%) of 13 species were infected; species of the Ploceidae were the most heavily infected. Species of Haemoproteus occurred most commonly 29 birds) while Leucocytozoon and Plasmodium species were virtually absent. There was no significant difference in the prevalence of hematozoa in birds from the mature rainforest and those in a savannah-urban setting.     

Intraspecific variation of wing pointedness index in juvenile Acrocephalus warblers in the southeastern Baltic

Variation of wing pointedness index between groups of juveniles captured in different months (July, August, and September) and at different stages of juvenile moult was studied in three Acrocephalus warbler species captured on the Courish Spit on the Baltic Sea. Sedge warblers (Acrocephalus schoenobaenus) captured in July had less pointed wings than sedge warblers captured in August or September. Marsh warblers (A. palustris) showed no significant difference between birds in early and in late moult. No differences in wing pointedness were found between different cohorts of reed warblers (A. scirpaceus), including known locally hatched birds and late migrants captured in September. It is hypothesised that reed warbler populations in the northeastern Baltic are too evolutionarily young to have evolved a different wing shape as compared with the local Courish population.Communicated by F. Bairlein     

Relative Incidence of Blood Parasites in Robins of Central New York and of the High Rockies

SUMMARY. A total of 60 robins, nearly equally divided among eastern and western species ( Turdus migratorius migratorius and T. m. propinquus respectively), and also almost evenly divided between juvenile and adult birds, has been studied for the relative incidence of blood parasites. Malaria of four species was found among the eastern robins, in most instances caused by Plasmodium vaughani. P. relictum (especially of the variety known as matutinum ) was next in frequency. Leucocytozoon was the next most common parasite. Among western robins only one case of malaria ( P. vaughani ) was found, but other blood parasites were much more common than in the eastern series, especially Leucocytozoon , which occurred in well over half the birds. Juvenile birds, even nestlings, seldom found infected with any of these parasites in the east, were very frequently infected in the western group. The explanation of these differences in incidence is believed to be chiefly differences in the distribution of still unknown vectors.     

The occurrence of former heathland vegetation in the coastal areas of the south-east Baltic sea,in particular Lithuania: a review

Previously published pollen diagrams from the coastal area of the south-east Baltic Sea including parts of the Polish and Lithuanian peninsulas, Mierzeja Wilana (Frische Nehrung) and Kuri Nerija (Courland Spit) respectively, document the former presence of heathland vegetation and an associated burning practice. This type of human influence can be dated back to ca. 1200 B.P. at the latest, and was maintained until the 18th century. It is suggested that this former Calluna-dominated vegetation belonged to the known west to north-west European heathland vegetation. Several dwarf shrub taxa, such as Genista spp. and Erica tetralix, normally connected to heathland vegetation, may have had a former wider distribution.     

A SURVEY OF BLOOD PARASITES OF BIRDS IN THE MASCARENE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN: WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEW SPECIES AND TAXONOMIC DISCUSSION

A survey was carried out on the prevalence of blood parasites in birds in the Mascarene Islands. Smears from 357 birds of 25 species in 12 families were examined, of which 150 (42%) were found to harbour blood parasites. The most common parasites were Leucocytozoon ; a new species, L. zosteropis , is described from the Grey White-eye Zosterops borbonica mauritiana. This parasite was observed in smears from 68 birds of three species: Z. borbonica, Z. chloronothos and Z. olivacea. Other species of Leucocytozoon identified were L. fringillinarum from fodies, sparrows and a bulbul and L. marchouxi from two doves.
Haemoproteus was found only in domestic pigeons Columba livia and identified as H. columbae. Plasmodium relictum, P. vaughani and an unidentified species with elongate gametocytes were found in Zosterops , and Plasmodium sp. of low infection observed in other hosts. Trypanosoma mayae is redescribed from the House Sparrow Passer domesticus and the Mauritius Fody Foudia rubra , and considered to be a valid species. A new species of trypanosome, Trypanosoma phedinae , is described from the Malagasy Swallow Phedina b. borbonica. Other birds were found to harbour low infections of unidentified species of trypanosomes. A small number of birds were infected with Atoxoplasma , haemogregarines and Rickettsia-like organisms. An unidentified organism with a predilection for eosinophils was observed in several Mascarene Swiftlets Collocalia francica.
The results are discussed in relation to the possible effects of the parasites on the birds of the Mascarene Islands and comparisons made with the results of similar surveys on other Indian Ocean Islands.     

Blood parasites of some birds from Colombia

Blood films from 421 birds of 142 species, representing 29 avian families, from the environs of Cali, Colombia, were examined for blood parsites. Only 30 (7.1%) birds of 26 species harbored hematozoa. Species of Haemoproteus (3.1%) and microfilaria (2.3%) were the most commonly encountered blood parasites; species of Leucocytozoon, Plasmodium, Akiba and Lankesterella were found in a few birds. Mixed infections with more than one genus of blood parasite were rare; most infections encountered were of low intensity.     

A molecular phylogeny of malarial parasites recovered from cytochrome b gene sequences

A phylogeny of haemosporidian parasites (phylum Apicomplexa, family Plasmodiidae) was recovered using mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences from 52 species in 4 genera (Plasmodium, Hepatocystis, Haemoproteus, and Leucocytozoon), including parasite species infecting mammals, birds, and reptiles from over a wide geographic range. Leucocytozoon species emerged as an appropriate out-group for the other malarial parasites. Both parsimony and maximum-likelihood analyses produced similar phylogenetic trees. Life-history traits and parasite morphology, traditionally used as taxonomic characters, are largely phylogenetically uninformative. The Plasmodium and Hepatocystis species of mammalian hosts form 1 well-supported clade, and the Plasmodium and Haemoproteus species of birds and lizards form a second. Within this second clade, the relationships between taxa are more complex. Although jackknife support is weak, the Plasmodium of birds may form 1 clade and the Haemoproteus of birds another clade, but the parasites of lizards fall into several clusters, suggesting a more ancient and complex evolutionary history. The parasites currently placed within the genus Haemoproteus may not be monophyletic. Plasmodium falciparum of humans was not derived from an avian malarial ancestor and, except for its close sister species, P. reichenowi, is only distantly related to haemospordian parasites of all other mammals. Plasmodium is paraphyletic with respect to 2 other genera of malarial parasites, Haemoproteus and Hepatocystis. Explicit hypothesis testing supported these conclusions.     

A comparison of the blood parasites in three subspecies of the yellow wagtail Motacilla flava

One-hundred and eighty yellow wagtails Motacilla flava belonging to 3 subspecies (Motacilla flava feldegg, Motacilla flava flava, Motacilla flava thunbergi) were caught during the spring migration in south Kazakhstan and investigated by microscopic examination of stained blood smears. Haemoproteus anthi, Haemoproteus motacillae, Leucocytozoon fringillinarum, Leucocytozoon majoris, Plasmodium relictum, Plasmodium polare, Atoxoplasma sp., Trypanosoma sp., and microfilariae were identified. The overall prevalence of infection was 47.8%. Prevalences of Haemoproteus spp. (27.2%), Plasmodium spp. (25.0%), Leucocytozoon spp. (8.9%), Atoxoplasma spp. (4.4%), Trypanosoma spp. (1.1%), and microfilariae (0.6%) were recorded. No differences were discernible in parasite fauna or intensities of infection between males and females or between different subspecies. However, prevalence of infection of Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon, and Plasmodium spp. was different in different host subspecies. These differences can be explained by differences in geographical location of breeding areas of these birds.     

Blood parasites of some birds from Senegal

A total of 809 birds from Senegal, including 43 species and 21 families, were examined for hematozoans; 93 birds (11.5%) harbored blood parasites, with only 7 (7.5%) harboring mixed infections. Species of Haemoproteus occurred in 81.7% of the infected birds while species of Plasmodium. Trypanosoma, microfilaria and Leucocytozoon were encountered less frequently. The majority of the sample was composed of species of ploceids and estrildidis and blood parasites were most prevalent in the colonial-nesting ploceids. Prevalence of blood parasites in Senegal was low in comparison to that seen in birds from other parts of Africa.     

Prevalence and diversity patterns of avian blood parasites in degraded African rainforest habitats

Land use changes including deforestation, road construction and agricultural encroachments have been linked to the increased prevalence of several infectious diseases. In order to better understand how deforestation affects the prevalence of vector-borne infectious diseases in wildlife, nine paired sites were sampled (disturbed vs. undisturbed habitats) in Southern Cameroon. We studied the diversity, prevalence and distribution of avian malaria parasites ( Plasmodium spp.) and other related haemosporidians (species of Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon ) from these sites in two widespread species of African rainforest birds, the yellow-whiskered greenbul ( Andropadus latirostris , Pycnonotidae) and the olive sunbird ( Cyanomitra olivacea , Nectariniidae). Twenty-six mitochondrial cytochrome b lineages were identified: 20 Plasmodium lineages and 6 Haemoproteus lineages. These lineages showed no geographic specificity, nor significant differences in lineage diversity between habitat types. However, we found that the prevalence of Leucocytozoon and Haemoproteus infections were significantly higher in undisturbed than in deforested habitats ( Leucocytozoon spp. 50.3% vs. 35.8%, Haemoproteus spp. 16.3% vs. 10.8%). We also found higher prevalence for all haemosporidian parasites in C. olivacea than in A. latirostris species (70.2% vs. 58.2%). Interestingly, we found one morphospecies of Plasmodium in C. olivacea , as represented by a clade of related lineages, showed increased prevalence at disturbed sites, while another showed a decrease, testifying to different patterns of transmission, even among closely related lineages of avian malaria, in relation to deforestation. Our work demonstrates that anthropogenic habitat change can affect host–parasite systems and result in opposing trends in prevalence of haemosporidian parasites in wild bird populations.     

Leucocytozoonosis and trypanosomiasis in redstarts in Finland.

Leucocytozoon spp. and Trypanosoma spp. blood parasites in the redstart (Phoenicurus phoenicurus) were studied during spring migration 1994 in southern Finland (53 individuals) and the breeding season 1992-1994 in northern Finland (69). Parasite prevalence was higher during the breeding season (48%) than during the migration period (13%), with no age or sex differences in the breeding site birds. In both periods, redstarts were infected by the same blood parasites Leucocytozoon shaartusicum (46% prevalence at the breeding site and 71% during the migration period) and Trypanosoma avium, complex (58% and 43%, respectively). One individual at the breeding site had contracted L. dubreuili and one at the stop-over site had T. everetti. Our results may support the assumption that tissue-hidden parasites relapse during the breeding season when birds may have diminished immune response related to egg production and brood rearing. Another explanation could be that the high abundance of ornithophilic vectors enhance parasite transmission during breeding season in northern Finland.