Cloning and characterization of repetitive DNA sequences from genomes of Oryza minuta and Oryza australiensis

The value of genome-specific repetitive DNA sequences for use as molecular markers in studying genome differentiation was investigated. Five repetitive DNA sequences from wild species of rice were cloned. Four of the clones, pOm1, pOm4, pOmA536, and pOmPB10, were isolated from Oryza minuta accession 101141 (BBCC genomes), and one clone, pOa237, was isolated from Oryza australiensis accession 100882 (EE genome). Southern blot hybridization to different rice genomes showed strong hybridization of all five clones to O. minuta genomic DNA and no cross hybridization to genomic DNA from Oryza sativa (AA genome). The pOm1 and pOmA536 sequences showed cross hybridization only to all of the wild rice species containing the C genome. However, the pOm4, pOmPB10, and pOa237 sequences showed cross hybridization to O. australiensis genomic DNA in addition to showing hybridization to the O. minuta genomic DNA.     

Chloroplast genome sequence confirms distinctness of Australian and Asian wild rice

Cultivated rice (Oryza sativa) is an AA genome Oryza species that was most likely domesticated from wild populations of O. rufipogon in Asia. O. rufipogon and O. meridionalis are the only AA genome species found within Australia and occur as widespread populations across northern Australia. The chloroplast genome sequence of O. rufipogon from Asia and Australia and O. meridionalis and O. australiensis (an Australian member of the genus very distant from O. sativa) was obtained by massively parallel sequencing and compared with the chloroplast genome sequence of domesticated O. sativa. Oryza australiensis differed in more than 850 sites single nucleotide polymorphism or indel from each of the other samples. The other wild rice species had only around 100 differences relative to cultivated rice. The chloroplast genomes of Australian O. rufipogon and O. meridionalis were closely related with only 32 differences. The Asian O. rufipogon chloroplast genome (with only 68 differences) was closer to O. sativa than the Australian taxa (both with more than 100 differences). The chloroplast sequences emphasize the genetic distinctness of the Australian populations and their potential as a source of novel rice germplasm. The Australian O. rufipogon may be a perennial form of O. meridionalis.     

利用多基因序列探讨稻属药稻复合体二倍体物种的系统发育关系

稻属药稻复合体Oryza officinalis complex中有5个二倍体物种,涉及B、C和E3个染色体组,分布在亚洲、非洲和大洋洲。其中,O.australiensis是稻属中惟一含E染色体组的物种;O.punctata则是惟一含B染色体组的物种。虽然O.officinalis、O.rhizomatis和O.eichingeri都含C染色体组,但由于它们间断分布在亚洲和非洲,可能在稻属异源多倍体成种中发挥了不同作用。染色体组B、C和E之间,以及上述二倍体物种之间的系统发育关系及其在稻属多倍体物种形成     

Identification of Chromosomes from Multiple Rice Genomes Using a Universal Molecular Cytogenetic Marker System

To develop reliable techniques for chromosome identification is critical for cytogenetic research, especially for genomes with a large number and smaller-sized chromosomes. An efficient approach using bacterial artificial chromosome （BAC） clones as molecular cytological markers has been developed for many organisms. Herein, we present a set of chromosomal arm-specific molecular cytological markers derived from the gene-enriched regions of the sequenced rice genome. All these markers are able to generate very strong signals on the pachytene chromosomes of Oryza sativa L. （AA genome） when used as fluorescence in situ hybridization （FISH） probes. We further probed those markers to the pachytene chromosomes of O. punctata （BB genome） and O. officinalis （CC genome） and also got very strong signals on the relevant pachytene chromosomes. The signal position of each marker on the related chromosomes from the three different rice genomes was pretty much stable, which enabled us to identify different chromosomes among various rice genomes. We also constructed the karyotype for both O. punctata and O. officinalis with the BB and CC genomes, respectively, by analysis of 10 pachytene cells anchored by these chromosomal arm-specific markers.     

稻属不同染色体组着丝粒BAC克隆的分离和鉴定

着丝粒在真核生物有丝分裂和减数分裂染色体正常的分离和传递中起着重要的作用。通过构建5个稻属二倍体野生种的基因组BAC文库, 采用菌落杂交和FISH技术, 筛选和鉴定了各染色体组着丝粒克隆, 并且分析了这些克隆在不同基因组间的共杂交情况, 结果表明: (1) C染色体组的野生种O. officinalis 和F染色体组的野生种O. brachyantha具有各自着丝粒特异的卫星DNA序列, 并且O. brachyantha着丝粒还具有特异的逆转座子序列; (2) A、B和E染色体组的野生稻O. glaberrima、O. punctata和O. australiensis着丝粒区域都含有与栽培稻着丝粒重复序列CentO和CRR同源的序列; (3) C染色体组野生稻O. officinalis的2条体细胞染色体着丝粒具有CentO的同源序列, 同时也发现其所有着丝粒区域都包含栽培稻CRR的同源序列。这些结果对克隆稻属不同染色体组的着丝粒序列、研究不同染色体组间着丝粒的进化关系和稻属不同着丝粒DNA序列与功能之间的关系均具有重要意义。     

Evidence of multiple horizontal transfers of the long terminal repeat retrotransposon RIRE1 within the genus Oryza

Horizontal gene transfer, defined as the transmission of genetic material between reproductively isolated species, has been considered for a long time to be a rare phenomenon. Most well-documented cases of horizontal gene transfer have been described in prokaryotes or in animals and they often involve transposable elements. The most abundant class of transposable elements in plant genomes are the long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposons. Because of their propensity to increase their copy number while active, LTR retrotransposons can have a significant impact on genomics changes during evolution. In a previous study, we showed that in the wild rice species Oryza australiensis , 60% of the genome is composed of only three families of LTR retrotransposons named RIRE1 , Wallabi and Kangourou . In the present study, using both in silico and experimental approaches, we show that one of these three families, RIRE1 , has been transferred horizontally between O. australiensis and seven other reproductively isolated Oryza species. This constitutes a new case of horizontal transfer in plants.     

Comparative physical mapping between Oryza sativa (AA genome type) and O. punctata (BB genome type)

A comparative physical map of the AA genome (Oryza sativa) and the BB genome (O. punctata) was constructed by aligning a physical map of O. punctata, deduced from 63,942 BAC end sequences (BESs) and 34,224 fingerprints, onto the O. sativa genome sequence. The level of conservation of each chromosome between the two species was determined by calculating a ratio of BES alignments. The alignment result suggests more divergence of intergenic and repeat regions in comparison to gene-rich regions. Further, this characteristic enabled localization of heterochromatic and euchromatic regions for each chromosome of both species. The alignment identified 16 locations containing expansions, contractions, inversions, and transpositions. By aligning 40% of the punctata BES on the map, 87% of the punctata FPC map covered 98% of the O. sativa genome sequence. The genome size of O. punctata was estimated to be 8% larger than that of O. sativa with individual chromosome differences of 1.5-16.5%. The sum of expansions and contractions observed in regions >500 kb were similar, suggesting that most of the contractions/expansions contributing to the genome size difference between the two species are small, thus preserving the macro-collinearity between these species, which diverged approximately 2 million years ago.     

Repetitive sequences: cause for variation in genome size and chromosome morphology in the genus Oryza

Large variation in genome size as determined by the nuclear DNA content and the mitotic chromosome size among diploid rice species is revealed using flow cytometry and image analyses. Both the total chromosomal length (r_0.939) and the total chromosomal area (r_0.927) correlated well with the nuclear DNA content. Among all the species examined, Oryza australiensis (E genome) and O. brachyantha (F genome), respectively, were the largest and smallest in genome size. O. sativa (A genome) involving all the cultivated species showed the intermediate genome size between them. The distribution patterns of genome-specific repetitive DNA sequences were physically determined using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). O. brachyantha had limited sites of the repetitive DNA sequences specific to the F genome. O. australiensis showed overall amplification of genome-specific DNA sequences throughout the chromosomes. The amplification of the repetitive DNA sequences causes the variation in the chromosome morphology and thus the genome size among diploid species in the genus Oryza.     

The transcribed 165-bp CentO satellite is the major functional centromeric element in the wild rice species Oryza punctata

Centromeres are required for faithful segregation of chromosomes in cell division. It is not clear what kind of sequences act as functional centromeres and how centromere sequences are organized in Oryza punctata, a BB genome species. In this study, we found that the CentO centromeric satellites in O. punctata share high homology with the CentO satellites in O. sativa. The O. punctata centromeres are characterized by megabase tandem arrays that are flanked by centromere-specific retrotransposons. Immunostaining with an antibody specific to CENH3 indicates that the 165-bp CentO satellites are the major component for functional centromeres. Moreover, both strands of CentO satellites are highly methylated and transcribed and produce small interfering RNA, which may be important for the maintenance of centromeric heterochromatin and centromere function.     

Genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationship as revealed by inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) polymorphism in the genus Oryza

Inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) polymorphism was used to determine genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships in Oryza. Forty two genotypes including 17 wild species, representing AA,BB,CC,EE,FF,GG,BBCC,CCDD, and HHJJgenomes, two cultivated species, Oryza sativa (AA) and Oryza glaberrima (AA), and three related genera, Porteresia coarctata, Leersia and Rhynchoryza subulata, were used in ISSR analysis. A total of 30 ISSR primers were screened representing di-, tri-, tetra- and penta-nucleotide repeats, of which 11 polymorphic and informative patterns were selected to determine the genetic diversity. The consensus tree constructed using binary data from banding patterns generated by ISSR-PCR clustered 42 genotypes according to their respective genomes. ISSR analysis suggests that the genus Oryza may have evolved following a polyphyletic pathway; Oryza brachyantha (FF genome) is the most divergent species in Oryza and Oryza australiensis (EE genome) does not fall under the Officinalis complex. DNA profiles based on ISSR markers have revealed potential diagnostic fingerprints for various species and genomes, and also for individual accessions/cultivars. Additionally ISSR revealed 87 putative genome/species-specific molecular markers for eight of the nine genomes of Oryza. The ISSR markers are thus useful in the fingerprinting of cultivated and wild species germplasm, and in understanding the evolutionary relationships of Oryza. Received: 23 August 1999 / Accepted: 10 November 1999     

Phylogenetic relationships in the genus Oryza based on mitochondrial RFLPs.

Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) of mitochondrial DNA in the genus Oryza was surveyed using 20 accessions including 11 species and a single endonuclease, EcoRI. RFLPs were visualized by Southern hybridization with eight rice mitochondrial DNA probes labeled non-radioactively with digoxigenin-dUTP. A total of 66 bands were obtained from all of the accessions. The total number of fragments per plant was higher in diploid A-genome species (an average of 35.3) than that in diploid B- and C-genome species and allotetraploid BC- and CD-genome species (an average of 28.2). The extent of the polymorphism in the RFLP patterns was various depending on the probes used. A diverse polymorphism was observed with most of the probes used, i.e. the cob, cox I, atp6, rrn18, rrn26 and atp9 regions, whereas, no polymorphic band was observed with a probe for the coxII region. The genus Oryza was separated into two large clusters. One cluster was comprised of A-genome species and the other cluster was comprised of B-, BC-, C-, and CD- genome species. Within A-genome species, the genetic variation was relatively high. Even in O. sativa species, the RFLP patterns of japonica and indica subspecies were clearly different from each other when three probes were used. However, there was no polymorphism between O. glaberrima and O. barthii. Within the genomes of B, BC, C, and CD, RFLP patterns were similar to each other and they showed a closer affinity except for O. minuta (BBCC). Within the BC genome species, the patterns of O. punctata and O. minuta were largely different from each other and separated into two different subclusters. Thus, the mitochondrial genomes of the two BC species (O. punctata and O. minuta) apparently evolved independently. Among CD genome species (O. latifolia and O. alta), the patterns of one accession, O. alta W0017 were largely different from those of the other accessions of CD genome species.     

Long-range and targeted ectopic recombination between the two homeologous chromosomes 11 and 12 in Oryza species

Whole genome duplication (WGD) and subsequent evolution of gene pairs have been shown to have shaped the present day genomes of most, if not all, plants and to have played an essential role in the evolution of many eukaryotic genomes. Analysis of the rice (Oryza sativa ssp. japonica) genome sequence suggested an ancestral WGD ～50-70 Ma common to all cereals and a segmental duplication between chromosomes 11 and 12 as recently as 5 Ma. More recent studies based on coding sequences have demonstrated that gene conversion is responsible for the high sequence conservation which suggested such a recent duplication. We previously showed that gene conversion has been a recurrent process throughout the Oryza genus and in closely related species and that orthologous duplicated regions are also highly conserved in other cereal genomes. We have extended these studies to compare megabase regions of genomic (coding and noncoding) sequences between two cultivated (O. sativa, Oryza glaberrima) and one wild (Oryza brachyantha) rice species using a novel approach of topological incongruency. The high levels of intraspecies conservation of both gene and nongene sequences, particularly in O. brachyantha, indicate long-range conversion events less than 4 Ma in all three species. These observations demonstrate megabase-scale conversion initiated within a highly rearranged region located at ～2.1 Mb from the chromosome termini and emphasize the importance of gene conversion in cereal genome evolution.     

The Oryza Map Alignment Project: The Golden Path to Unlocking the Genetic Potential of Wild Rice Species

The wild species of the genus Oryza offer enormous potential to make a significant impact on agricultural productivity of the cultivated rice species Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima. To unlock the genetic potential of wild rice we have initiated a project entitled the ‘Oryza Map Alignment Project’ (OMAP) with the ultimate goal of constructing and aligning BAC/STC based physical maps of 11 wild and one cultivated rice species to the International Rice Genome Sequencing Project’s finished reference genome – O. sativa ssp. japonica c. v. Nipponbare. The 11 wild rice species comprise nine different genome types and include six diploid genomes (AA, BB, CC, EE, FF and GG) and four tetrapliod genomes (BBCC, CCDD, HHKK and HHJJ) with broad geographical distribution and ecological adaptation. In this paper we describe our strategy to construct robust physical maps of all 12 rice species with an emphasis on the AA diploid O. nivara – thought to be the progenitor of modern cultivated rice.     

Evolutionary trajectory of phytoalexin biosynthetic gene clusters in rice

Plants frequently possess operon‐like gene clusters for specialized metabolism. Cultivated rice, Oryza sativa, produces antimicrobial diterpene phytoalexins represented by phytocassanes and momilactones, and the majority of their biosynthetic genes are clustered on chromosomes 2 and 4, respectively. These labdane‐related diterpene phytoalexins are biosynthesized from geranylgeranyl diphosphate via ent‐copalyl diphosphate or syn‐copalyl diphosphate. The two gene clusters consist of genes encoding diterpene synthases and chemical‐modification enzymes including P450s. In contrast, genes for the biosynthesis of gibberellins, which are labdane‐related phytohormones, are scattered throughout the rice genome similar to other plant genomes. The mechanism of operon‐like gene cluster formation remains undefined despite previous studies in other plant species. Here we show an evolutionary insight into the rice gene clusters by a comparison with wild Oryza species. Comparative genomics and biochemical studies using wild rice species from the AA genome lineage, including Oryza barthii, Oryza glumaepatula, Oryza meridionalis and the progenitor of Asian cultivated rice Oryza rufipogon indicate that gene clustering for biosynthesis of momilactones and phytocassanes had already been accomplished before the domestication of rice. Similar studies using the species Oryza punctata from the BB genome lineage, the distant FF genome lineage species Oryza brachyantha and an outgroup species Leersia perrieri suggest that the phytocassane biosynthetic gene cluster was present in the common ancestor of the Oryza species despite the different locations, directions and numbers of their member genes. However, the momilactone biosynthetic gene cluster evolved within Oryza before the divergence of the BB genome via assembly of ancestral genes.     

Transferability of microsatellite and sequence tagged site markers in Oryza species

The genus Oryza comprises 22 species which are potentially useful as a source of genetic variability that can be introgressed into the worldwide cultivated rice, Oryza sativa. Molecular markers are useful tools for monitoring gene introgressions and for detecting polymorphism among species. In this study, cross-amplification was estimated among 28 accessions of 16 Oryza species, representing the genomes AA, BB, CC, BBCC and CCDD, using 59 microsatellite (OG, OS and RM series) and 15 STS (Sequence Tagged Sites) markers. All markers amplified at least one Oryza species, indicating different levels of transferability across species. Markers based on microsatellite sequences amplified 37 % of the accessions, with an average of 6.58 alleles per locus and an average polymorphism information content (PIC) of 70 %. For STS markers, the amplification level was 53.3 %, and the average number of alleles and PIC values were 1.6 and 10 %, respectively. These Results showed that although the STS markers detected a reduced level of genetic diversity, the transferability was higher, indicating that they can be used for genetic analysis when evaluating less genetically related species of Oryza. Among the microsatellite markers, an analysis of species with an AA genome showed that the OG markers produced the highest level of polymorphic loci (54.6 %), followed by RM markers (48 %). Highly polymorphic and transferable molecular markers in Oryza can be useful for exploiting the genetic resources of this genus, for detecting allelic variants in loci associated with important agronomic traits, and for monitoring alleles introgressed from wild relatives to cultivated rice.     

Dynamic nucleotide-binding site and leucine-rich repeat-encoding genes in the grass family

The proper use of resistance genes (R genes) requires a comprehensive understanding of their genomics and evolution. We analyzed genes encoding nucleotide-binding sites and leucine-rich repeats in the genomes of rice (Oryza sativa), maize (Zea mays), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), and Brachypodium distachyon. Frequent deletions and translocations of R genes generated prevalent presence/absence polymorphism between different accessions/species. The deletions were caused by unequal crossover, homologous repair, nonhomologous repair, or other unknown mechanisms. R gene loci identified from different genomes were mapped onto the chromosomes of rice cv Nipponbare using comparative genomics, resulting in an integrated map of 495 R loci. Sequence analysis of R genes from the partially sequenced genomes of an African rice cultivar and 10 wild accessions suggested that there are many additional R gene lineages in the AA genome of Oryza. The R genes with chimeric structures (termed type I R genes) are diverse in different rice accessions but only account for 5.8% of all R genes in the Nipponbare genome. In contrast, the vast majority of R genes in the rice genome are type II R genes, which are highly conserved in different accessions. Surprisingly, pseudogene-causing mutations in some type II lineages are often conserved, indicating that their conservations were not due to their functions. Functional R genes cloned from rice so far have more type II R genes than type I R genes, but type I R genes are predicted to contribute considerable diversity in wild species. Type I R genes tend to reduce the microsynteny of their flanking regions significantly more than type II R genes, and their flanking regions have slightly but significantly lower G/C content than those of type II R genes.     

Polymorphisms and evolutionary history of retrotransposon insertions in rice promoters

Retrotransposons are ubiquitous in higher plant genomes. The presence or absence of retrotransposons in whole genome and high throughput genomic sequence (HTGS) from cultivated and wild rice was investigated to understand the organization and evolution of retrotransposon insertions in promoter regions. Approximately half of the Oryza sativa subsp. japonica 'Nipponbare' promoters with retrotransposons conserved in Oryza sativa subsp. indica '93-11' and four wild rice species showed higher sequence conservation in retrotransposon than nonretrotransposon regions. We further investigated, in detail, the evolutionary dynamics of five retrotransposons in the promoter regions of 95 rice genotypes. Our data suggest that four of five insertions (Rp2-Rp5) occurred in the ancestor of AA genome, while the other insertion (Rp1) predates the ancestral divergence of Oryza officinalis (CC genome). Four retrotransposons (Rp2-Rp5) were present in 52% (Rp2), 29% (Rp3), 53% (Rp4), and 43% (Rp5) of the rice genotypes with AA genome type, and the fifth retrotransposon (Rp1) was present in 95% of the rice genotypes with AA, BBCC, or CC genome types. Furthermore, most of these retrotransposons were found to evolve slower than flanking promoter regions, suggesting a role in promoter function for regulating downstream genes.     

MORE ACCURATE PHYLOGENIES INFERRED FROM LOW‐RECOMBINATION REGIONS IN THE PRESENCE OF INCOMPLETE LINEAGE SORTING

When speciation events occur in rapid succession, incomplete lineage sorting (ILS) can cause disagreement among individual gene trees. The probability that ILS affects a given locus is directly related to its effective population size (N_e), which in turn is proportional to the recombination rate if there is strong selection across the genome. Based on these expectations, we hypothesized that low‐recombination regions of the genome, as well as sex chromosomes and nonrecombining chromosomes, should exhibit lower levels of ILS. We tested this hypothesis in phylogenomic datasets from primates, the Drosophila melanogaster clade, and the Drosophila simulans clade. In all three cases, regions of the genome with low or no recombination showed significantly stronger support for the putative species tree, although results from the X chromosome differed among clades. Our results suggest that recurrent selection is acting in these low‐recombination regions, such that current levels of diversity also reflect past decreases in the effective population size at these same loci. The results also demonstrate how considering the genomic context of a gene tree can assist in more accurate determination of the true species phylogeny, especially in cases where a whole‐genome phylogeny appears to be an unresolvable polytomy.     

Isolation and identification of a non-specific tandemly repeated DNA sequence in Oryza species

A tandemly repeated DNA sequence (RRS7) was isolated from Oryza alta (CCDD). RRS7-related sequences were also found tandemly arrayed in genomes AA, BB, BBCC, CC, and EE, and a small amount of RRS7-related sequences were detected in genome FF and the Oryza species with unknown genomes. DNA sequence analysis of the 1844-bp insert of RRS7 revealed that it contained six tandemly repeated units, of which five were 155 bp in length and one was 194 bp in length and contained an imperfect internal 39-bp duplication. Southern blot analysis showed that the boundary sequence contained in RRS7 is a single-copy sequence. A 155-bp consensus sequence derived from the six monomeric repeats contained no internal repeat and showed no significant homology to other currently known sequences. The results of Southern blot and sequence analysis revealed that there are at least two subfamilies present in the RRS7 family; these are represented by the DraI site and the MspI site, respectively. Restriction digestion with two pairs of isoschizomers MboI/Sau3A and MspI/HpaII demonstrated that most of the C residues in the GATC sites and the internal C in the CCGG sites of the RRS7 family in O. Alta were methylated. The usefulness of the RRS7 family in determining the evolutionary relationship of the genome DD and other Oryza genomes is discussed.     

Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of CCDD genome species of the genus Oryza L.

Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) were studied in fourteen accessions of CCDD genome allotetraploid wild rice species (Oryza latifolia, O. alta and O. grandiglumis). Fourteen nuclear RFLP markers previously mapped in AA genome-cultivated rice were used as probes. A phylogenetic tree, constructed by parsimony analysis based on RFLPs, grouped the accessions according to their geographic origin from Central or South America. Oryza alta, O. grandiglumis and one accession of O. latifolia grouped together as a subgroup, and our results suggested that the three taxa should be considered as populations of a single complex species. Duplicate loci, representing the two constituent genomes of the allotetraploid, were observed for most RFLP markers. By comparing RFLPs from the allotetraploids with those from a CC genome diploid wild species (O. officinalis), it was possible to detect RFLPs specific for both the CC and DD genomes of the allotetraploid. In inter-accession F2 populations, independent segregation of RFLP markers for CC and DD genomes was observed.