Survey of Loxodonta africana (Elephantidae)‐caused bark injury on Adansonia digitata (Malavaceae) within Pendjari Biosphere Reserve,Benin

This study assessed the level of bark damage on baobab trees (Adansonia digitata) as caused by elephants (Loxodonta africana), and the possibility of finding refuges where baobab could escape bark damage within the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve (PBR). Distributions of elephants and baobab trees within the PBR were compared using presence records of both species taken along transect lines. Two sites (National Park vs. hunting zone) that differ in elephant density were compared for intensity of bark damage and correlations between the intensity of bark damage and stem size of the baobab trees and population structure of the baobab trees. Elephants and baobabs showed co‐occurrence in PBR suggesting that there is nowhere to hide for baobabs. The intensity of bark damage was positively correlated with elephant density and baobab girth. Baobab population girth classes were not significantly different in areas with and without bark damage. Future studies should test whether there are certain baobab genotypes that can resist elephant damage. It could also be tested whether effective conservation of elephants in the PBR has resulted in a bull‐biased population over its carrying capacity.     

Baobabs and elephants in Kruger National Park: nowhere to hide

Baobab size class distributions were surveyed in the Limpopo National Park (LNP), Mozambique, and the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa. There are very few elephants in the LNP and the baobab population there had a reverse J-shaped size class distribution with many small baobabs. In contrast, the elephant-impacted baobab population of KNP displayed a mono-modal size-class distribution, with a lack in recruitment. Within KNP, elephant impact (percentage bark stripped up to the height of 3 m) decreased with increasing rockiness and slope steepness. We interpret this to suggest that steep rocky slopes are inaccessible to elephants and therefore these sites may act as a refuge for baobabs. In such inaccessible areas, the baobab population has a similar size-class distribution to that of the populations in the LNP. However, these baobab refugia are restricted in the northern KNP landscape and are therefore probably not large enough to sustain a viable baobab population.     

Does size really matter? Species–area relationships in human settlements

Aim To describe species–area relationships in human settlements and compare them with those from a non‐urban habitat. Location West‐central Mexico. Methods We surveyed breeding birds in 13 human settlements and five shrubland patches. We estimated bird species richness using an abundance‐based coverage estimator with equal sample sizes to eliminate biases related to sampling effort differences. To assess species–area relationships, we performed log–log linear regressions between the size of the studied patches and their estimated bird richness. We also used a logarithmic approach to determine how the species–area relationship asymptoted and made use of the Michaelis–Menten model to identify the size at which the studied patches reached their maximum species richness. We also investigated (1) possible relationships among the estimated bird richness and other variables known to affect urban‐dwelling birds (built cover, plant species richness, tree cover or human population density) and (2) changes in bird community composition related to the size of the studied human settlements. Results Species–area relationships exhibited different patterns among the studied habitats. The log–log regression slope was steeper in human settlements, while the intercept was higher in shrublands. The maximum number of species was more than twofold higher in shrublands. Human settlement patch size was the only variable significantly related to bird richness. Our community composition results show that two main bird groups are related to human settlement size, and that as the size of human settlements increases, bird community similarity in relation to the largest city increases. Main conclusions Human settlements act as ecological islands, with pronounced species–area relationships. Our results suggest that an important threshold for bird species richness and community composition is reached in human settlements > 10.2 km². This threshold is unlikely to be generalizable among bio‐regions, and thus should be quantified and considered when studying, managing and/or planning urban systems.     

Intraguild dynamics of understudied carnivores in a human‐altered landscape

Mesocarnivores constitute a diverse and often abundant group of species, which are increasingly occupying hweigher trophic levels within multi‐use landscapes. Yet, we know relatively little about their interactions with each other, especially in human‐altered areas. Using camera trap data collected in a forestry concession in the Greater Gorongosa ecosystem of central Mozambique, we examined the spatiotemporal relationships and potential for intraguild competition among three understudied African carnivores: African civets (Civettictis civetta), bushy‐tailed mongooses (Bdeogale crassicauda), and large‐spotted genets (Genetta maculata). After accounting for habitat preferences and tolerance to anthropogenic factors, we found that African civets and bushy‐tailed mongooses avoid each other spatially and temporally. Additionally, civets and mongooses were also both more likely to use sites farther away from human settlements, possibly decreasing the total available habitat for each species if competition is driving this spatial partitioning. In contrast, we did not find evidence for spatial or temporal partitioning between large‐spotted genets and African civets, but bushy‐tailed mongooses altered their activity patterns where they co‐occurred with genets. Our study contributes to scant ecological knowledge of these mesocarnivores and adds to our understanding of community dynamics in human‐altered ecosystems.     

Conservation implications of past and present nesting habitat selection of the endangered Osprey Pandion haliaetus population of the Canary Islands

We studied nesting habitat selection of the endangered non‐migratory Osprey Pandion haliaetus population of the Canary Islands and evaluated the effect of human expansion in recent decades. Compared with randomly selected potential nest‐sites, Osprey nests were more frequently found on taller, southwest‐facing cliffs, characterized by lower human pressure and closer to Yellow‐legged Gull Larus michahellis colonies and Barbary Falcon Falco pelegrinoides breeding sites. Furthermore, changes in some breeding habitat features have been detected in recent decades. According to our predictive models, large areas of suitable habitat are available but unoccupied in the Canaries, and human activities are probably limiting the settlement and dispersion of new pairs.     

Nectarivory by Endemic Malagasy Fruit Bats During the Dry Season1

Madagascar has a distinctive fruit bat community consisting of Pteropus rufus, Eidolon dupreanum, and Rousettus madagascariensis. In this study, we observed fruit bat visits to flowering baobabs (Adansonia suarezensis and Adansonia grandidieri) and kapok trees (Ceiba pentandra) during the austral winter. Eidolon dupreanum was recorded feeding on the nectar of baobabs and kapok, P. rufus was observed feeding on kapok only and no R. madagascariensis were seen. Three mammals species, two small lemurs (Phaner furcifer and Mirza coquereli) and E. dupreanum, made nondestructive visits to flowering A. grandidieri and are therefore all potential pollinators of this endangered baobab. This is the first evidence to show that A. grandidieri is bat‐pollinated and further demonstrates the close link between fruit bats and some of Madagascar's endemic plants. Eidolon dupreanum was the only mammal species recorded visiting A. suarezensis and visits peaked at the reported times of maximum nectar concentration. Pteropus rufus visited kapok mostly before midnight when most nectar was available, but E. dupreanum visited later in the night. These differences in timing of foraging on kapok can be explained either by differing distances from the roost sites of each species or by resource partitioning. We advocate increased levels of protection, education awareness, and applied research on both mammal‐pollinated baobab species and fruit bats, and suggest that both baobabs and bats are candidate “flagship species” for the threatened dry forests of Madagascar.     

Fatty Acid Composition of Baobab Seed and Its Relationship with the Genus Adansonia Taxonomy

Baobab seed oil contains specific fatty acids. Most of the studies on baobab fatty acids have been carried out singly and in isolation from each other, making it difficult to compare results through different species. The objective of the present study is to establish the seed fatty acid composition of each Adansonia species in order to evaluate and understand the relationships between the oil chemical compositions, the baobabs’ taxonomy and, the ecological and geographical origin of each seed lot. The seed oils have been analysed using gas chromatography (GC). The oils of all baobab species contain three major fatty acids: palmitic, oleic and linoleic acids. They also contain specific fatty acids such as cyclopropenic and cyclopropanic acids, which are characteristic of the Malvaceae family seed oils. It was possible to distinguish three sections through principal components analysis using the eleven fatty acids identified by GC. The Adansonia section contains high rates of oleic acid (± 35%), the Brevitubae section is rich in palmitic acid (± 42%) and the Longitubae section contains high levels of dihydrosterulic acid (± 5%). The oil fatty acid composition, however, does not enable a definitive characterization of profiles according to species. The fatty acid composition is not significantly influenced by the geographical, soil and climate conditions of the collection sites.     

Environmental factors affecting patterns of distribution and co‐occurrence of two competing raptor species

Habitat selection is a complex process, that is affected by several factors, including habitat characteristics, environmental conditions, and both intra‐ and interspecific interactions. We analysed habitat preferences of two top avian predators, Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus, a medium‐sized diurnal raptor, and Eagle Owl Bubo bubo, a large nocturnal raptor. These two species are known to compete for preferred nest‐sites, and proximity to cliffs with Eagle Owls may reduce Peregrine breeding output through predation of young Falcons. We investigated the environmental factors affecting occurrence and coexistence of the two species and the potential role of habitat suitability in favouring co‐occurrence in 3519 km² of the central pre‐Alps of Italy, where the two species breed on cliffs and sometimes co‐occur on the same cliff. Peregrines settled on long, steep and favourably orientated cliffs in woodland landscapes close to urban areas. Eagle Owls settled on topographically similar cliffs, but in lower rainfall areas compared with cliffs occupied by Peregrines and cliffs unoccupied by either species. Sites where the two species co‐occurred were characterized by more horizontally extended cliffs compared with sites of exclusive occurrence of each species. An analysis of relative habitat suitability revealed that sites where the two species co‐occurred had the highest predicted probability of occupancy for both species, suggesting that those sites should be regarded as high‐quality sites. Breeding productivity of Eagle Owls was negatively affected by the co‐occurrence of Peregrines, whereas the effect of Eagle Owl proximity on Peregrine productivity varied according to cliff suitability for the Peregrines. Habitat selection had fitness consequences for Eagle Owls because breeding productivity increased with cliff length. Environmental conditions, particularly climatic factors, could allow the widespread coexistence of these competing raptors at the landscape scale, whereas at the local scale co‐occurrence could take place only on larger cliffs. These were preferred sites for both species, presumably because breeding at such sites offsets the costs of settling close to the competitor species.     

Taking into account local practices and indigenous knowledge in an emergency conservation context in Madagascar

At the 5th World Parks Congress, held in Durban, South Africa in 2003, the President of Madagascar committed his government to tripling the country’s protected zones over the next 5 years. The announcement reflected a desire to combine rapid conservation efforts with sustainable development. Conservationists in Madagascar focused their attention on the endemic baobab tree, Adansonia grandidieri. This paper aims to identify the contradictions between the political emergency of the biodiversity conservation effort and local development needs. Eighty-three semi-structured interviews were conducted in two villages near the protected area of “Baobab Alley” in the Menabe region. Malagasy conservationists believed the area’s protected status would benefit the local economy through eco-tourism. However, the conservation actions undertaken there display limited understanding of local dynamics and conflict with farmers’ needs. To protect the baobabs, the government has prohibited rice cultivation without providing compensation. We show that the multifunctional baobab tree is integrated into an agroforestry system and protected by farmers. Based on these results, we address the issue of how to combine conservation and local development objectives through the involvement of farmers and the recognition of local knowledge in tree management. We also demonstrate that an emergency approach to conservation is not conducive to the successful integration of conservation and development.     

Vital statistics of the baobab (Adansonia digitata)

Five populations of baobab trees in Zambia, Sudan, Mali, Kenya and Tanzania were measured to establish distribution of girth size classes. Absolute growth rates from rings or from empirical observations in each area were used to convert size into age classes. Baobab populations appear to be much younger than has generally been believed and only very few trees live to ages in excess of 400 years. Instantaneous mortality rates vary from 1 1 to 3–7% per year in the different areas. A lack of recruitment to the youngest age classes is caused by elephants in some areas but land-use changes due to increasing human populations and increased domestic animal numbers may also be responsible for low recruitment rates in other areas.     

Humans,fire and landscape pattern: understanding a maquis‐forest complex,Mont Do,New Caledonia,using a spatial ‘state‐and‐transition’ model

Abstract Aim The research explores how changes in disturbance regime resulting from human settlement may affect landscape structure. A spatially explicit grid‐based simulation model is used to explore the interplay between humans, fire regime and landscape composition. Location The study site for this research is the botanical reserve at Mont Do, New Caledonia. The endemic conifer Araucaria laubenfelsii (Araucariaceae) forms a key component of the landscape at Mont Do. This species is unusual in that it is found scattered as an emergent in maquis and as a canopy species in adjacent rain forest patches. Although now dominated by a low maquis, prior to human settlement of New Caledonia, montane landscapes such as Mont Do are likely to have been heavily forested. Methods A spatially explicit simulation model, based on field data and palaeoecological information, was used to explore interactions between disturbance regime and the landscape. The model is described briefly here and more fully in Perry & Enright (2002) Ecological Modelling, 152 , 279. Results The model suggests that human‐influenced changes to the fire regime at Mont Do have been important in generating the current landscape structure. The origin and maintenance of forest landscapes and maquis‐forest mosaic landscapes are considered in the context of alternative stable states. Strong feedback loops between fire size and landscape composition, mediated at the smaller scale by other similar mechanisms, are capable of driving landscape change. The utility of a spatial state and transition modelling approach is demonstrated. Main conclusions The current landscape pattern on Mont Do is likely the result of changes to the fire regime occurring since human settlement. The specific mechanisms for this change outlined here may occur in a number of other similar systems. Understanding the origin and persistence of these ‘fire landscapes’ in New Caledonia and in the south‐west Pacific in general is crucial for their effective management.     

A biomechanical perspective on the role of large stem volume and high water content in baobab trees (Adansonia spp.; Bombacaceae)

The stems of large trees serve in transport, storage, and support; however, the degree to which these roles are reflected in their morphology is not always apparent. The large, water-filled stems of baobab trees (Adansonia spp.) are generally assumed to serve a water storage function, yet recent studies indicate limited use of stored water. Through an analysis of wood structure and composition, we examined whether baobab morphology reflects biomechanical constraints rather than water storage capacity in the six Madagascar baobab species. Baobab wood has a high water content (up to 79%), low wood density (0.09-0.17 g · cm(-3)), high parenchyma content (69-88%), and living cells beyond 35 cm into the xylem from the cambium. Volumetric construction cost of the wood is several times lower than in more typical trees, and the elastic modulus approaches that of parenchyma tissue. Safety factors calculated from estimated elastic buckling heights were low, indicating that baobabs are not more overbuilt than other temperate and tropical trees, yet the energy investment in stem material is comparable to that in temperate deciduous trees. Furthermore, the elastic modulus of the wood decreases with water content, such that excessive water withdrawal from the stem could affect mechanical stability.     

Contrasting habitat use of morphologically similar bat species with differing conservation status in south‐eastern Australia

The east‐coast free‐tailed bat Mormopterus norfolkensis Gray, 1839 is a threatened insectivorous bat that is poorly known and as such conservation management strategies are only broadly prescribed. Insectivorous bats that use human‐modified landscapes are often adapted to foraging in open microhabitats. However, few studies have explored whether open‐adapted bats select landscapes with more of these microhabitat features. We compared three morphologically similar and sympatric, molossid bats (genus Mormopterus) with different conservation status in terms of their association with vegetation, climate, landform and land‐use attributes at landscape and local habitat element scales. We predicted that these species would use similar landscape types, with semi‐cleared and low density urban landscapes used more than forested and heavily cleared landscapes. Additionally, we explored which environmental variables best explained the occurrence of each species by constructing post‐hoc models and habitat suitability maps. Contrary to predictions, we found that the three species varied in their habitat use with no one landscape type used more extensively than other types. Overall, M. norfolkensis was more likely to occur in low‐lying, non‐urban, riparian habitats with little vegetation cover. Mormopterus species 2 occupied similar habitats, but was more tolerant of urban landscapes. In contrast, Mormopterus species 4 occurred more often in cleared than forested landscapes, particularly dry landscapes with little vegetation cover. The extensive use of coastal floodplains by the threatened M. norfolkensis is significant because these habitats are under increasing pressure from human land‐uses and the predicted increase in urbanization is likely to further reduce the amount of suitable habitat.     

Fire and home range expansion: A behavioral response to burning among savanna dwelling vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops)

The behavioral adaptations of primates to fire‐modified landscapes are of considerable interest to anthropologists because fire is fundamental to life in the African savanna—the setting in which genus Homo evolved. Here we report the behavioral responses of a savanna‐dwelling primate, vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops), to fire‐induced ecological change. Using behavioral and spatial data to characterize ranging patterns prior to and postburn and between burn and nonburn years, we show that these primates inhabiting small, spatially bound, riverine habitats take advantage of newly burned savanna landscapes. When subjects encountered controlled fires, they did not flee but instead avoided the path of the fire seemingly unbothered by its approach. After fire, the primates' home range expanded into newly burned but previously unused areas. These results contribute to understanding the response of non‐human primates to fire‐modified landscapes and can shed light on the nature and scope of opportunities and constraints posed by the emergence of fire‐affected landscapes in the past. Results also expose deficiencies in our knowledge of fire‐related behavioral responses in the primate lineage and highlight the need for further investigation of these responses as they relate to foraging opportunities, migration, resource use, and especially fire‐centric adaptations in our own genus. Am J Phys Anthropol 154:554–560, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Tracing site‐specific isotopic signatures along a Blue Tit Cyanistes caeruleus food chain

Food chains culminating with temperate insectivorous passerines are well described, yet whether trophic webs can be site‐specific remains a largely unexplored question. In the case of site‐ or habitat‐specificity of food webs, stable isotope signatures of bird feathers may enable assignment of unmarked individuals to a site or a habitat of origin. We address this question in landscapes that include contrasting forest habitat patches with either deciduous Downy Oak Quercus humilis or evergreen Holm Oak Quercus ilex as dominant tree species. First, we examine the spatial variation across habitats and sites in the stable isotope ratios of carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) along the oak leaf–Tortrix moth Tortrix viridana caterpillar–Blue Tit Cyanistes caeruleus food chain. Secondly, we assess whether the isotopic signatures allow for correct assignment of individual birds to their site or habitat of origin. At the scale of the landscape, stable isotope values enabled identification of the different components of the Blue Tit food chain: from oak leaves to Blue Tit nestlings and yearling birds. However, isotopic signatures were site‐specific (i.e. geographical) more than habitat‐specific (i.e. deciduous vs. evergreen oaks). Discriminant analyses correctly assigned 85% of nestlings and 83% of resident yearling birds, indicating a pronounced effect of site on Blue Tit feather isotopic signatures. We thereby demonstrate that isotopes reflect a stronger association of locally born birds to the local features of their habitat than that of un‐ringed yearling birds, whose plumage may have grown while in a wider geographical area. This study provides evidence of site‐specific isotopic signatures from oak leaves to Blue Tit feathers at a fine spatial scale.     

Scale‐appropriate spatial modelling to support area‐wide management of a polyphagous fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Control of mobile pests frequently requires area‐wide management (AWM) that spans commercial and non‐commercial habitats. Spatial modelling of habitat suitability can guide investment and implementation of AWM, but current approaches rarely capture population drivers, including local foraging, at an appropriate spatial resolution. To support the development of AWM for the fruit fly pest, Bactrocera tryoni (Tephritidae), we developed a habitat suitability model for the three premier fruit‐growing regions in south‐eastern Australia (~34,780 km²). Expert elicitation and published literature was used to develop a Bayesian network to model the drivers of B. tryoni habitat suitability, as determined by the ability of populations to persist and increase. The effect of uncertainty was tested through sensitivity analysis. The model was then linked with spatially explicit data (at 10 m resolution) to generate risk maps, using moving windows to capture local foraging movement. Habitat suitability was most strongly influenced by host availability within a distance of 200 m. Climate stress, and soil moisture for pupation, was also limiting. Experts were uncertain regarding the relative importance of drivers of host availability (host preference, host density, fruit seasonality), but this did not greatly affect model outputs. Independent trapping data supported model predictions, but their value was limited as traps were placed almost exclusively in optimal or suitable habitat. Amenability to AWM, when assessed as the ratio of suitable or optimal habitat that was under non‐horticultural versus horticultural land‐uses, differed by region (0.15–1.17). However, risk‐mapping did identify where ratios were locally most favourable (lowest). Also, predominantly local dispersal by B. tryoni suggests AWM for pest suppression could be applied at a landscape‐scale. Results show that a relatively simple model could capture the multi‐scale drivers of population dynamics and the complexity of landscapes sufficiently to guide AWM of a mobile pest.     

Low‐frequency,threatened habitats drive the large‐scale distribution of Andean Condors in southern Patagonia

The analysis of factors that determine the distribution of top‐scavengers at large scales can provide clues to understanding important ecological processes and may be useful in establishing conservation and management strategies. Here, we conducted a large‐scale survey to study the distribution of the threatened Andean Condor Vultur gryphus in relation to environmental factors in southern Patagonia. This area has undergone the settlement of livestock and the introduction of exotic wildlife, although to a lesser extent than in the distribution of Condors in northern Patagonia. The aim of this study was to determine the relevance of different factors such as the availability of food resources, the availability of suitable nesting and roosting places and the presence of humans on large‐scale condor distribution. Our results show that the presence of meadows was the primary factor shaping Andean Condor distribution, despite the fact that this habitat occupies only 4% of the Patagonian landscapes. However, this habitat has a high probability of herbivore presence, so Condors seem to optimize their searching. The availability of nesting and roosting cliffs also contributed to explaining the observed distributions. Our results suggest that Condor distribution in southern Patagonia is a compromise between the spatial locations of two low‐frequency habitats – meadows and cliffs. A successful Condor conservation strategy in southern Patagonia should include the protection of these habitats and the regulation of farming expansion, including the recovery of meadows.     

Human settlement drives African elephant (Loxodonta africana) movement in the Sebungwe Region,Zimbabwe

Understanding the key drivers that influence the potential distribution of herbivore species in changing landscapes has been at the centre of enquiry in wildlife science for many decades. This knowledge is particularly important for keystone species like the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) whose population is declining even in conservation areas. The Sebungwe Region is part of the Kavango‐Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area and supports ~4,000 elephants. The Sebungwe Region has lost an estimated 76% of its elephant population over the years. This study aimed to determine how the elephant distribution in the Sebungwe Region was affected by human settlement and whether the patches for elephant distribution were large enough for elephant habitation. The prediction of the potential distribution of the elephant was based on presence‐only data modelled through an ensemble algorithm that combined several candidate models to enhance predictive ability. We observed that human settlement drives the potential distribution of elephants in the Sebungwe Region (test AUC = 0.95), and patches from the model were on average <1.5 km². Our results provide initial insights into the key habitat factors that drive distribution of elephants in the Sebungwe landscape. Future conservation of the elephant could benefit from our study through systematic planning of settlements, which might help minimise human interaction with wildlife.     

Searching for the Oldest Baobab of Madagascar: Radiocarbon Investigation of Large Adansonia rubrostipa Trees

We extended our research on the architecture, growth and age of trees belonging to the genus Adansonia, by starting to investigate large individuals of the most widespread Malagasy species. Our research also intends to identify the oldest baobabs of Madagascar. Here we present results of the radiocarbon investigation of the two most representative Adansonia rubrostipa (fony baobab) specimens, which are located in south-western Madagascar, in the Tsimanampetsotse National Park. We found that the fony baobab called “Grandmother” consists of 3 perfectly fused stems of different ages. The radiocarbon date of the oldest sample was found to be 1136 ± 16 BP. We estimated that the oldest part of this tree, which is mainly hollow, has an age close to 1,600 yr. This value is comparable to the age of the oldest Adansonia digitata (African baobab) specimens. By its age, the Grandmother is a major candidate for the oldest baobab of Madagascar. The second investigated specimen, called the “polygamous baobab”, consists of 6 partially fused stems of different ages. According to dating results, this fony baobab is 1,000 yr old. This research is the first investigation of the structure and age of Malagasy baobabs.     

Widespread supplementary feeding in domestic gardens explains the return of reintroduced Red Kites Milvus milvus to an urban area

Reintroductions are commonly used to mitigate biodiversity loss. One prominent example is that of the Red Kite Milvus milvus, a charismatic raptor of conservation concern. This species has been reintroduced across the UK over the last 25 years following its near extinction after centuries of persecution. The species was not expected to recolonize urban areas; its historical association with human settlements is attributed to scavenging on human waste and refuse, a resource now greatly reduced on the streets of modern European cities. However, the species has become a common daytime visitor to a large conurbation centred on the town of Reading, southern England, approximately 20 km from the first English reintroduction site. Given a near‐absence of breeding and roost sites, we investigated foraging opportunities and habitat associations that might explain use by Red Kites of this urban area. Surveys of discarded human foods and road‐kill suggested that these could support at most 13–29 Kites per day. Face‐to‐face surveys of a cross‐section of residents revealed that 4.5% (equivalent to 4349 households) provided supplementary food for Red Kites in their gardens. Using estimates of per‐household resource provision from another study, we calculated that this is potentially sufficient to feed 142–320 Kites, a substantial proportion of the total estimated to visit the conurbation each day (between 140 and 440). Road transects found positive associations between Red Kites and residential areas. We suggest that the decision made by thousands of householders to provide supplementary food for Red Kites in their gardens is the primary factor explaining their daytime abundance in this urban area.