Different response of photosystem II to short and long‐term drought stress in Arabidopsis thaliana

Short‐ and long‐term drought stress on photosystem II (PSII) and oxidative stress were studied in Arabidopsis thaliana. Under drought stress, chlorophyll (Chl) content, Chl fluorescence, relative water content and oxygen evolution capacity gradually decreased, and the thylakoid structure was gradually damaged. Short‐term drought stress caused a rapid disassembly of the light‐harvesting complex II (LHCII). However, PSII dimers kept stable under the short‐term drought stress and significantly decreased only after 15 days of drought stress. Immunoblotting analysis of the thylakoid membrane proteins showed that most of the photosystem proteins decreased after the stress, especially for Lhcb5, Lhcb6 and PsbQ proteins. However, surprisingly, PsbS significantly increased after the long‐term drought stress, which is consistent with the substantially increased non‐photochemical quenching (NPQ) after the stress. Our results suggest that the PSII–LHCII supercomplexes and LHCII assemblies play an important role in preventing photo‐damages to PSII under drought stress.     

In pea stipules a functional photosynthetic electron flow occurs despite a reduced dynamicity of LHCII association with photosystems

The flexible association of the light harvesting complex II (LHCII) to photosystem (PS) I and PSII to balance their excitation is a major short-term acclimation process of the thylakoid membrane, together with the thermal dissipation of excess absorbed energy, reflected in non-photochemical quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence (NPQ). In Pisum sativum, the leaf includes two main photosynthetic parts, the basal stipules and the leaflets. Since the stipules are less efficient in carbon fixation than leaflets, the adjustments of the thylakoid system, which safeguard the photosynthetic membrane against photodamage, were analysed. As compared to leaflets, the stipules experienced a decay in PSII photochemical activity. The supramolecular organization of photosystems in stipules showed a more conspicuous accumulation of large PSII-LHCII supercomplexes in the grana, but also a tendency to retain the PSI-LHCI-LHCII state transition complex and the PSI-LHCI-PSII-LHCII megacomplexes probably located at the interface between appressed and stroma-exposed membranes. As a consequence, stipules had a lower capacity to perform state transitions and the overall thylakoid architecture was less structurally flexible and ordered than in leaflets. Yet, stipules proved to be quite efficient in regulating the redox state of the electron transport chain and more capable of inducing NPQ than leaflets. It is proposed that, in spite of a relatively static thylakoid arrangement, LHCII interaction with both photosystems in megacomplexes can contribute to a regulated electron flow.     

Fine tuning of the photosystem II major antenna mobility within the thylakoid membrane of higher plants

Depending on the amount of light, the photosystem II (PSII) antennae or Light Harvesting Complexes (LHCII) switch between two states within the thylakoid membranes of higher plants, i.e., a light-harvesting and a photoprotective mode. This switch is co-regulated by a pH gradient (ΔpH) across the membrane and the interaction with the PSII subunit S (PsbS) that is proposed to induce LHCII aggregation. Herein we employ all-atom and coarse-grained molecular simulations of the major LHCII trimer at low and excess ΔpH, as well as in complexation with PsbS within a native thylakoid membrane model. Our results demonstrate the aggregation potential of LHCII and, consistent with the experimental literature, reveal the role of PsbS at atomic resolution. PsbS alters the LHCII-thylakoid lipid interactions and restores the LHCII mobility that is lost in the transition to photoprotective conditions (low lumenal pH). In agreement with this finding, diffusion of the integral membrane protein LHCII is dependent on both, electrostatic interactions and hydrophobic mismatch, while it does not obey the Saffman–Delbrück diffusion model.     

A novel method produces native light-harvesting complex II aggregates from the photosynthetic membrane revealing their role in nonphotochemical quenching

Nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ) is a mechanism of regulating light harvesting that protects the photosynthetic apparatus from photodamage by dissipating excess absorbed excitation energy as heat. In higher plants, the major light-harvesting antenna complex (LHCII) of photosystem (PS) II is directly involved in NPQ. The aggregation of LHCII is proposed to be involved in quenching. However, the lack of success in isolating native LHCII aggregates has limited the direct interrogation of this process. The isolation of LHCII in its native state from thylakoid membranes has been problematic because of the use of detergent, which tends to dissociate loosely bound proteins, and the abundance of pigment–protein complexes (e.g. PSI and PSII) embedded in the photosynthetic membrane, which hinders the preparation of aggregated LHCII. Here, we used a novel purification method employing detergent and amphipols to entrap LHCII in its natural states. To enrich the photosynthetic membrane with the major LHCII, we used Arabidopsis thaliana plants lacking the PSII minor antenna complexes (NoM), treated with lincomycin to inhibit the synthesis of PSI and PSII core proteins. Using sucrose density gradients, we succeeded in isolating the trimeric and aggregated forms of LHCII antenna. Violaxanthin- and zeaxanthin-enriched complexes were investigated in dark-adapted, NPQ, and dark recovery states. Zeaxanthin-enriched antenna complexes showed the greatest amount of aggregated LHCII. Notably, the amount of aggregated LHCII decreased upon relaxation of NPQ. Employing this novel preparative method, we obtained a direct evidence for the role of in vivo LHCII aggregation in NPQ.     

Proteomic characterization of hierarchical megacomplex formation in Arabidopsis thylakoid membrane

Conversion of solar energy into chemical energy in plant chloroplasts concomitantly modifies the thylakoid architecture and hierarchical interactions between pigment–protein complexes. Here, the thylakoids were isolated from light‐acclimated Arabidopsis leaves and investigated with respect to the composition of the thylakoid protein complexes and their association into higher molecular mass complexes, the largest one comprising both photosystems (PSII and PSI) and light‐harvesting chlorophyll a/b‐binding complexes (LHCII). Because the majority of plant light‐harvesting capacity is accommodated in LHCII complexes, their structural interaction with photosystem core complexes is extremely important for efficient light harvesting. Specific differences in the strength of LHCII binding to PSII core complexes and the formation of PSII supercomplexes are well characterized. Yet, the role of loosely bound L‐LHCII that disconnects to a large extent during the isolation of thylakoid protein complexes remains elusive. Because L‐LHCII apparently has a flexible role in light harvesting and energy dissipation, depending on environmental conditions, its close interaction with photosystems is a prerequisite for successful light harvesting in vivo. Here, to reveal the labile and fragile light‐dependent protein interactions in the thylakoid network, isolated membranes were subjected to sequential solubilization using detergents with differential solubilization capacity and applying strict quality control. Optimized 3D‐lpBN‐lpBN‐sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis system demonstrated that PSII–LHCII supercomplexes, together with PSI complexes, hierarchically form larger megacomplexes via interactions with L‐LHCII trimers. The polypeptide composition of LHCII trimers and the phosphorylation of Lhcb1 and Lhcb2 were examined to determine the light‐dependent supramolecular organization of the photosystems into megacomplexes.     

Higher plant photosystem II light-harvesting antenna, not the reaction center, determines the excited-state lifetime-both the maximum and the nonphotochemically quenched

The maximum chlorophyll fluorescence lifetime in isolated photosystem II (PSII) light-harvesting complex (LHCII) antenna is 4 ns; however, it is quenched to 2 ns in intact thylakoid membranes when PSII reaction centers (RCIIs) are closed (Fm). It has been proposed that the closed state of RCIIs is responsible for the quenching. We investigated this proposal using a new, to our knowledge, model system in which the concentration of RCIIs was highly reduced within the thylakoid membrane. The system was developed in Arabidopsis thaliana plants under long-term treatment with lincomycin, a chloroplast protein synthesis inhibitor. The treatment led to 1), a decreased concentration of RCIIs to 10% of the control level and, interestingly, an increased antenna component; 2), an average reduction in the yield of photochemistry to 0.2; and 3), an increased nonphotochemical chlorophyll fluorescence quenching (NPQ). Despite these changes, the average fluorescence lifetimes measured in Fm and Fm' (with NPQ) states were nearly identical to those obtained from the control. A 77 K fluorescence spectrum analysis of treated PSII membranes showed the typical features of preaggregation of LHCII, indicating that the state of LHCII antenna in the dark-adapted photosynthetic membrane is sufficient to determine the 2 ns Fm lifetime. Therefore, we conclude that the closed RCs do not cause quenching of excitation in the PSII antenna, and play no role in the formation of NPQ.     

The mobile thylakoid phosphoprotein TSP9 interacts with the light-harvesting complex II and the peripheries of both photosystems

The localization of the plant-specific thylakoid-soluble phosphoprotein of 9 kDa, TSP9, within the chloroplast thylakoid membrane of spinach has been established by the combined use of fractionation, immunoblotting, cross-linking, and mass spectrometry. TSP9 was found to be exclusively confined to the thylakoid membranes, where it is enriched in the stacked grana membrane domains. After mild solubilization of the membranes, TSP9 migrated together with the major light-harvesting antenna (LHCII) of photosystem II (PSII) and with PSII-LHCII supercomplexes upon separation of the protein complexes by either native gel electrophoresis or sucrose gradient centrifugation. Studies with a cleavable cross-linking agent revealed the interaction of TSP9 with both major and minor LHCII proteins as identified by mass spectrometric sequencing. Cross-linked complexes that in addition to TSP9 contain the peripheral PSII subunits CP29, CP26, and PsbS, which form the interface between LHCII and the PSII core, were found. Our observations also clearly suggest an interaction of TSP9 with photosystem I (PSI) as shown by both immunodetection and mass spectrometry. Sequencing identified the peripheral PSI subunits PsaL, PsaF, and PsaE, originating from cross-linked protein complexes of around 30 kDa that also contained TSP9. The distribution of TSP9 among the cross-linked forms was found to be sensitive to conditions such as light exposure. An association of TSP9 with LHCII as well as the peripheries of the photosystems suggests its involvement in regulation of photosynthetic light harvesting.     

High light stimulates Deg1-dependent cleavage of the minor LHCII antenna proteins CP26 and CP29 and the PsbS protein in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis thaliana</Emphasis>

The chloroplast Deg1 protein performs proteolytic cleavage of the photodamaged D1 protein of the photosystem II (PSII) reaction center, PSII extrinsic subunit PsbO and the soluble electron carrier plastocyanin. Using biochemical, immunological and mass spectrometry approaches we showed that the heterogeneously expressed Deg1 protease from Arabidopsis thaliana can be responsible for the degradation of the monomeric light-harvesting complex antenna subunits of PSII (LHCII), CP26 and CP29, as well as PSII-associated PsbS (CP22/NPQ4) protein. The results may indicate that cytochrome b ₆ protein and two previously unknown thylakoid proteins, Ptac16 and an 18.3-kDa protein, may be the substrates for Deg1. The interaction of Deg1 with the PsbS protein and the minor LHCII subunits implies its involvement in the regulation of both excess energy dissipation and state transition adaptation processes.     

Correlated fluorescence quenching and topographic mapping of Light-Harvesting Complex II within surface-assembled aggregates and lipid bilayers

Light-Harvesting Complex II (LHCII) is a chlorophyll-protein antenna complex that efficiently absorbs solar energy and transfers electronic excited states to photosystems I and II. Under excess light intensity LHCII can adopt a photoprotective state in which excitation energy is safely dissipated as heat, a process known as Non-Photochemical Quenching (NPQ). In vivo NPQ is triggered by combinatorial factors including transmembrane ΔpH, PsbS protein and LHCII-bound zeaxanthin, leading to dramatically shortened LHCII fluorescence lifetimes. In vitro, LHCII in detergent solution or in proteoliposomes can reversibly adopt an NPQ-like state, via manipulation of detergent/protein ratio, lipid/protein ratio, pH or pressure. Previous spectroscopic investigations revealed changes in exciton dynamics and protein conformation that accompany quenching, however, LHCII-LHCII interactions have not been extensively studied. Here, we correlated fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) of trimeric LHCII adsorbed to mica substrates and manipulated the environment to cause varying degrees of quenching. AFM showed that LHCII self-assembled onto mica forming 2D-aggregates (25–150?nm width). FLIM determined that LHCII in these aggregates were in a quenched state, with much lower fluorescence lifetimes (~0.25?ns) compared to free LHCII in solution (2.2–3.9?ns). LHCII-LHCII interactions were disrupted by thylakoid lipids or phospholipids, leading to intermediate fluorescent lifetimes (0.6–0.9?ns). To our knowledge, this is the first in vitro correlation of nanoscale membrane imaging with LHCII quenching. Our findings suggest that lipids could play a key role in modulating the extent of LHCII-LHCII interactions within the thylakoid membrane and so the propensity for NPQ activation.     

The causes of altered chlorophyll fluorescence quenching induction in the Arabidopsis mutant lacking all minor antenna complexes

Non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) of chlorophyll fluorescence is the process by which excess light energy is harmlessly dissipated within the photosynthetic membrane. The fastest component of NPQ, known as energy-dependent quenching (qE), occurs within minutes, but the site and mechanism of qE remain of great debate. Here, the chlorophyll fluorescence of Arabidopsis thaliana wild type (WT) plants was compared to mutants lacking all minor antenna complexes (NoM). Upon illumination, NoM exhibits altered chlorophyll fluorescence quenching induction (i.e. from the dark-adapted state) characterised by three different stages: (i) a fast quenching component, (ii) transient fluorescence recovery and (iii) a second quenching component. The initial fast quenching component originates in light harvesting complex II (LHCII) trimers and is dependent upon PsbS and the formation of a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane (ΔpH). Transient fluorescence recovery is likely to occur in both WT and NoM plants, but it cannot be overcome in NoM due to impaired ΔpH formation and a reduced zeaxanthin synthesis rate. Moreover, an enhanced fluorescence emission peak at ~679?nm in NoM plants indicates detachment of LHCII trimers from the bulk antenna system, which could also contribute to the transient fluorescence recovery. Finally, the second quenching component is triggered by both ΔpH and PsbS and enhanced by zeaxanthin synthesis. This study indicates that minor antenna complexes are not essential for qE, but reveals their importance in electron stransport, ΔpH formation and zeaxanthin synthesis.     

Arabidopsis plants lacking PsbS protein possess photoprotective energy dissipation

It is commonly accepted that the photosystem II subunit S protein, PsbS, is required for the dissipation of excess light energy in a process termed ‘non‐photochemical quenching’ (NPQ). This process prevents photo‐oxidative damage of photosystem II (PSII) thus avoiding photoinhibition which can decrease plant fitness and productivity. In this study Arabidopsis plants lacking PsbS (the npq4 mutant) were found to possess a competent mechanism of excess energy dissipation that protects against photoinhibitory damage. The process works on a slower timescale, taking about 1 h to reach the same level of NPQ achieved in the wild type in just a few minutes. The NPQ in npq4 was found to display very similar characteristics to the fast NPQ in the wild type. Firstly, it prevented the irreversible light‐induced closure of PSII reaction centres. Secondly, it was uncoupler‐sensitive, and thus triggered by the ΔpH across the thylakoid membrane. Thirdly, it was accompanied by significant quenching of the fluorescence under conditions when all PSII reaction centres were open (F_o state)_. Fourthly, it was accompanied by NPQ‐related absorption changes (ΔA535). Finally, it was modulated by the presence of the xanthophyll cycle carotenoid zeaxanthin. The existence of a mechanism of photoprotective energy dissipation in plants lacking PsbS suggests that this protein plays the role of a kinetic modulator of the energy dissipation process in the PSII light‐harvesting antenna, allowing plants to rapidly track fluctuations of light intensity in the environment, and is not the primary cause of NPQ or a direct carrier of the pigment acting as the non‐photochemical quencher.     

Sensitivity of the photosynthetic apparatus to UV-A radiation: role of light-harvesting complex II–photosystem II supercomplex organization

In this work we study the effect of UV-A radiation on the function of the photosynthetic apparatus in thylakoid membranes with different organization of the light-harvesting complex II–photosystem II (LHCII–PSII) supercomplex. Leaves and isolated thylakoid membranes from a number of previously characterized pea species with different LHCII size and organization were subjected to UV-A treatment. A relationship was found between the molecular organization of the LHCII (ratio of the oligomeric to monomeric forms of LHCII) and UV-A-induced changes both in the energy transfer from PSII to PSI and between the chlorophyll–protein complexes within the LHCII–PSII supercomplex. Dependence on the organization of the LHCII was also found with regard to the degree of inhibition of the photosynthetic oxygen evolution. The susceptibility of energy transfer and oxygen evolution to UV-A radiation decreased with increasing LHCII oligomerization when the UV-A treatment was performed on isolated thylakoid membranes, in contrast to the effect observed in thylakoid membranes isolated from pre-irradiated pea leaves. The data suggest that UV-A radiation leads mainly to damage of the PSIIα centers. Comparison of membranes with different organization of their LHCII–PSII supercomplex shows that the oligomeric forms of LHCII play a key role for sensitivity to UV-A radiation of the photosynthetic apparatus. S. G. Taneva is Associated member of the Institute of Biophysics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.     

Thylakoid protein phosphorylation in dynamic regulation of photosystem II in higher plants

In higher plants, the photosystem (PS) II core and its several light harvesting antenna (LHCII) proteins undergo reversible phosphorylation cycles according to the light intensity. High light intensity induces strong phosphorylation of the PSII core proteins and suppresses the phosphorylation level of the LHCII proteins. Decrease in light intensity, in turn, suppresses the phosphorylation of PSII core, but strongly induces the phosphorylation of LHCII. Reversible and differential phosphorylation of the PSII-LHCII proteins is dependent on the interplay between the STN7 and STN8 kinases, and the respective phosphatases. The STN7 kinase phosphorylates the LHCII proteins and to a lesser extent also the PSII core proteins D1, D2 and CP43. The STN8 kinase, on the contrary, is rather specific for the PSII core proteins. Mechanistically, the PSII-LHCII protein phosphorylation is required for optimal mobility of the PSII-LHCII protein complexes along the thylakoid membrane. Physiologically, the phosphorylation of LHCII is a prerequisite for sufficient excitation of PSI, enabling the excitation and redox balance between PSII and PSI under low irradiance, when excitation energy transfer from the LHCII antenna to the two photosystems is efficient and thermal dissipation of excitation energy (NPQ) is minimised. The importance of PSII core protein phosphorylation is manifested under highlight when the photodamage of PSII is rapid and phosphorylation is required to facilitate the migration of damaged PSII from grana stacks to stroma lamellae for repair. The importance of thylakoid protein phosphorylation is highlighted under fluctuating intensity of light where the STN7 kinase dependent balancing of electron transfer is a prerequisite for optimal growth and development of the plant. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Photosystem II.     

Biogenesis of water splitting by photosystem II during de‐etiolation of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)

Etioplasts lack thylakoid membranes and photosystem complexes. Light triggers differentiation of etioplasts into mature chloroplasts, and photosystem complexes assemble in parallel with thylakoid membrane development. Plastids isolated at various time points of de‐etiolation are ideal to study the kinetic biogenesis of photosystem complexes during chloroplast development. Here, we investigated the chronology of photosystem II (PSII) biogenesis by monitoring assembly status of chlorophyll‐binding protein complexes and development of water splitting via O₂ production in plastids (etiochloroplasts) isolated during de‐etiolation of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Assembly of PSII monomers, dimers and complexes binding outer light‐harvesting antenna [PSII‐light‐harvesting complex II (LHCII) supercomplexes] was identified after 1, 2 and 4 h of de‐etiolation, respectively. Water splitting was detected in parallel with assembly of PSII monomers, and its development correlated with an increase of bound Mn in the samples. After 4 h of de‐etiolation, etiochloroplasts revealed the same water‐splitting efficiency as mature chloroplasts. We conclude that the capability of PSII to split water during de‐etiolation precedes assembly of the PSII‐LHCII supercomplexes. Taken together, data show a rapid establishment of water‐splitting activity during etioplast‐to‐chloroplast transition and emphasize that assembly of the functional water‐splitting site of PSII is not the rate‐limiting step in the formation of photoactive thylakoid membranes.     

Restoration of rapidly reversible photoprotective energy dissipation in the absence of PsbS protein by enhanced DeltapH

Variations in the light environment require higher plants to regulate the light harvesting process. Under high light a mechanism known as non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) is triggered to dissipate excess absorbed light energy within the photosystem II (PSII) antenna as heat, preventing photodamage to the reaction center. The major component of NPQ, known as qE, is rapidly reversible in the dark and dependent upon the transmembrane proton gradient (ΔpH), formed as a result of photosynthetic electron transport. Using diaminodurene and phenazine metasulfate, mediators of cyclic electron flow around photosystem I, to enhance ΔpH, it is demonstrated that rapidly reversible qE-type quenching can be observed in intact chloroplasts from Arabidopsis plants lacking the PsbS protein, previously believed to be indispensible for the process. The qE in chloroplasts lacking PsbS significantly quenched the level of fluorescence when all PSII reaction centers were in the open state (F(o) state), protected PSII reaction centers from photoinhibition, was modulated by zeaxanthin and was accompanied by the qE-typical absorption spectral changes, known as ΔA(535). Titrations of the ΔpH dependence of qE in the absence of PsbS reveal that this protein affects the cooperativity and sensitivity of the photoprotective process to protons. The roles of PsbS and zeaxanthin are discussed in light of their involvement in the control of the proton-antenna association constant, pK, via regulation of the interconnected phenomena of PSII antenna reorganization/aggregation and hydrophobicity.     

The role of ΔpH-dependent dissipation of excitation energy in protecting photosystem II against light-induced damage in Arabidopsis thaliana

The Arabidopsis thaliana subunit PsbS of photosystem II (PSII) is essential for the non-photochemical quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence and thus for ΔpH-dependent energy dissipation (qE). As a result of the excision of an En-transposon, a frameshift mutation in the psbS gene was obtained, which results in the complete absence of the PsbS protein and of qE. Two-dimensional gel analyses of thylakoid membranes indicated that the depletion of PsbS has no effect on PSII composition, excluding a structural role for PsbS in the organization of the PSII antenna. The susceptibility of mutant plants to photoinactivation of PSII was significantly increased during exposure to high light for up to 8 h. Divergence of mutant plants from wild-type levels of photoinactivation were most pronounced during the first 2 h of illumination, while after longer exposure times the rate of PSII inactivation were similar in both genotypes. The increased PSII inactivation in the mutant was not accompanied by an increased rate of D1 protein degradation, and recovery of PSII activity in the mutant under low light was similar or even faster in comparison to wild-type plants. However, growth under high light intensities resulted in decreased growth rates of psbs mutant plants. We conclude that energy dissipation in PSII related to qE is not primarily required for the protection of PSII against light-induced destruction, but may rather be involved in reducing the electron pressure on the photosynthetic electron transport chain at saturating light intensities.     

Effect of phosphorylation on the thermal and light stability of the thylakoid membranes

Higher plant thylakoid membranes contain a protein kinase that phosphorylates certain threonine residues of light-harvesting complex II (LHCII), the main light-harvesting antenna complexes of photosystem II (PSII) and some other phosphoproteins (Allen, Biochim Biophys Acta 1098:275, 1992). While it has been established that phosphorylation induces a conformational change of LHCII and also brings about changes in the lateral organization of the thylakoid membrane, it is not clear how phosphorylation affects the dynamic architecture of the thylakoid membranes. In order to contribute to the elucidation of this complex question, we have investigated the effect of duroquinol-induced phosphorylation on the membrane ultrastructure and the thermal and light stability of the chiral macrodomains and of the trimeric organization of LHCII. As shown by small angle neutron scattering on thylakoid membranes, duroquinol treatment induced a moderate (~10%) increase in the repeat distance of stroma membranes, and phosphorylation caused an additional loss of the scattering intensity, which is probably associated with the partial unstacking of the granum membranes. Circular dichroism (CD) measurements also revealed only minor changes in the chiral macro-organization of the complexes and in the oligomerization state of LHCII. However, temperature dependences of characteristic CD bands showed that phosphorylation significantly decreased the thermal stability of the chiral macrodomains in phosphorylated compared to the non-phosphorylated samples (in leaves and isolated thylakoid membranes, from 48.3°C to 42.6°C and from 47.5°C to 44.3°C, respectively). As shown by non-denaturing PAGE of thylakoid membranes and CD spectroscopy on EDTA washed membranes, phosphorylation decreased by about 5°C, the trimer-to-monomer transition temperature of LHCII. It also enhanced the light-induced disassembly of the chiral macrodomains and the monomerization of the LHCII trimers at 25°C. These data strongly suggest that phosphorylation of the membranes considerably facilitates the heat- and light-inducible reorganizations in the thylakoid membranes and thus enhances the structural flexibility of the membrane architecture.     

Evidences for interaction of PsbS with photosynthetic complexes in maize thylakoids

The PsbS subunit of Photosystem II (PSII) has received much attention in the past few years, given its crucial role in photoprotection of higher plants. The exact location of this small subunit in thylakoids is also debated. In this work possible interaction partners of PsbS have been identified by immunoaffinity and immunoprecipitation, performed with mildly solubilized whole thylakoid membrane. The interacting proteins, as identified by mass spectrometry analysis of the immunoaffinity eluate, include CP29, some LHCII components, but also components of Photosystem I, of the cytochrome b₆f complex as well as of ATP synthase. These proteins can be co-immunoprecipitated by using highly specific anti-PsbS antibodies and, vice-versa, PsbS is co-immunoprecipitated by antisera against components of the interacting complexes. We also find that PsbS co-migrates with bands containing PSII, ATP synthase and cytochrome b₆f as well as with LHCII-containing bands on non-denaturing Deriphat PAGE. These results suggest multiple location of PsbS in the thylakoid membrane and point to an unexpected lateral mobility of this PSII subunit. As revealed by immunogold labelling with antibody against PsbS, the protein is associated either with granal membranes or prevalently with stroma lamellae in low or high-intensity light-treated intact leaves, respectively. This finding is consistent with the capability of PsbS to interact with complexes located in stroma lamellae, even though the exact physiological condition(s) under which these interactions may take place remain to be clarified.     

NaCl-induced phosphorylation of light harvesting chlorophyll a/b proteins in thylakoid membranes from the halotolerant green alga, Dunaliella salina

Light could induce phosphorylation of light harvesting chlorophyll a/b binding proteins (LHCII) in Dunaliella salina and spinach thylakoid membranes. We found that neither phosphorylation was affected by glycerol, whereas treatment with NaCl significantly enhanced light-induced LHCII phosphorylation in D. salina thylakoid membranes and inhibited that in spinach. Furthermore, even in the absence of light, NaCl and several other salts induced LHCII phosphorylation in D. salina thylakoid membranes, but not in spinach thylakoid membranes. In addition, hypertonic shock induced LHCII phosphorylation in intact D. salina under dark conditions and cells adapted to different NaCl concentrations exhibited similar LHCII phosphorylation levels. Taken together, these results show for the first time that while LHCII phosphorylation of D. salina thylakoid membranes resembles that of spinach thylakoid membranes in terms of light-mediated control, the two differ with respect to NaCl sensitivity under light and dark conditions.