Insects as Food: A Case Study from the Northwest Amazon

In this article I examine the use of insects as food by Tukanoan Indians in the Northwest Amazon and discuss both the characteristics of the species exploited and their significance in the diet. Data on insect collection were obtained from harvest records and participant-observation. Dietary intake was determined from weighed food intake records. The insects collected belonged to over 20 species. The most important in the diet were those which formed large, highly predictable aggregations: beetle larvae (genus Rhynchophorus), ants (genus Atta), termites (genus Syntermes), and caterpillars (families Noctuidae and Saturniidae). The composition of insects is similar to that of other animal foods. Their inclusion in the diet was frequent and inversely related to the consumption of fish and game. They provided up to 12% of the crude protein derived from animal foods in men's diets and 26% in women's diets during one season of the year.     

Ecological Praxis and Blackwater Ecosystems: A Case Study From the Brazilian Amazon

This article explores how anthropogenic modifications of soil condition human adaptive processes on the Amazonian uplands. The occurrence of black earth (a nutrient-rich anthrosol) in nutrient-poor blackwater environments and its cultivation by contemporary residents provide a unique opportunity for understanding the ecological praxis of Amazonian groups. Two years of ethnographic, ethnoscientific, and agronomic research among caboclo residents of the Lower Rio Negro and Rio Urubú confirm that unique cognitive and behavioral orientations characterize black earth and adjacent environments. When compared with cognitive and behavioral orientations to these two environments in distant blackwater regions, data suggest that political-economic, technological, cultural, and ecological factors have had~a strong influence on the trajectory of human-environmental interactions. Data in large part illustrate the utility of historical ecological models, yet point to an interactive role of diverse histories in shaping the range of human responses.     

Improving the Modeling of Disease Data from the Government Surveillance System: A Case Study on Malaria in the Brazilian Amazon

The study of the effect of large-scale drivers (e.g., climate) of human diseases typically relies on aggregate disease data collected by the government surveillance network. The usual approach to analyze these data, however, often ignores a) changes in the total number of individuals examined, b) the bias towards symptomatic individuals in routine government surveillance, and; c) the influence that observations can have on disease dynamics. Here, we highlight the consequences of ignoring the problems listed above and develop a novel modeling framework to circumvent them, which is illustrated using simulations and real malaria data. Our simulations reveal that trends in the number of disease cases do not necessarily imply similar trends in infection prevalence or incidence, due to the strong influence of concurrent changes in sampling effort. We also show that ignoring decreases in the pool of infected individuals due to the treatment of part of these individuals can hamper reliable inference on infection incidence. We propose a model that avoids these problems, being a compromise between phenomenological statistical models and mechanistic disease dynamics models; in particular, a cross-validation exercise reveals that it has better out-of-sample predictive performance than both of these alternative models. Our case study in the Brazilian Amazon reveals that infection prevalence was high in 2004–2008 (prevalence of 4% with 95% CI of 3–5%), with outbreaks (prevalence up to 18%) occurring during the dry season of the year. After this period, infection prevalence decreased substantially (0.9% with 95% CI of 0.8–1.1%), which is due to a large reduction in infection incidence (i.e., incidence in 2008–2010 was approximately one fifth of the incidence in 2004–2008).We believe that our approach to modeling government surveillance disease data will be useful to advance current understanding of large-scale drivers of several diseases.     

Support for Sustainable Development Policy Decisions A Case Study from Highway Maintenance

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/lca2006.04.009

Goal, Scope and Method

logy. This paper describes a case study carried out as part of a wider programme to provide support for environmental decision-making in the highway maintenance programme of a local government body: Surrey County Council (SCC). UK local authorities are required to demonstrate that sustainable development principles are addressed in service provision, by improving environmental, economic or social wellbeing and improving public consultation. A methodological approach was developed to meet these requirements by using life cycle assessment (LCA) and multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) through the process of decision conferencing.

Results

In projects requiring strategic decisions, difficulties arise in identifying relevant sustainable development criteria and in evaluating maintenance options against these criteria where the context for decision-making is complex and characterised by uncertainty, where multiple public policy objectives compete and a number of decision-makers and key players are affected by the outcome. Clearly, a structured process is needed to engage such stakeholders in the decision process, utilising quantitative and qualitative information. The approach described proved to be capable of fulfilling these requirements.

Conclusions

and Recommendations. The approach of combining LCA with MCDA through decision conferencing is capable of further development to support other strategic decision-making activities. However, this illustrative case study has revealed a need for methodological developments in LCA for local, project-level decisions.

     

Impacts of Cash Transfer Programs on Rural Livelihoods: a Case Study in the Brazilian Amazon Estuary

We conducted a large household survey in a region of the Amazon estuary in Brazil to investigate the dependence of small farming households on government cash transfers and to identify the main factors that lead to better livelihood outcomes. The study examined the factors that contribute to heterogeneous household livelihoods and patterns of dependence on cash transfer programs. Multinomial logistic regression was used to evaluate household attributes affecting the level of dependence on cash transfers. Results indicate that households engage in a diversity of livelihood strategies, and vary in dependence on cash transfers. Lower levels of dependency are associated with higher levels of education and income from off-farm activities as well as larger property sizes and holdings in the várzea. Recognition of the causes and potential range of dependence on cash transfer programs adds decision-making capacity for policy makers seeking avenues to reduce dependence and increase program effectiveness.     

Severity of Scorpion Stings in the Western Brazilian Amazon: A Case-Control Study

Background

Scorpion stings are a major public health problem in Brazil, with an increasing number of registered cases every year. Affecting mostly vulnerable populations, the phenomenon is not well described and is considered a neglected disease. In Brazil, the use of anti-venom formulations is provided free of charge. The associate scorpion sting case is subject to compulsory reporting. This paper describes the epidemiology and identifies factors associated with severity of scorpions stings in the state of Amazonas, in the Western Brazilian Amazon.

Methodology/Principal Findings

This study included all cases of scorpion stings in the state of Amazonas reported to the Brazilian Diseases Surveillance System from January 1, 2007 to December 31, 2014. A case-control study was conducted to identify factors associated with scorpions sting severity. A total of 2,120 cases were reported during this period. The mean incidence rate in the Amazonas was 7.6 per 100,000 inhabitants/year. Scorpion stings showed a large spatial distribution in the state and represent a potential occupational health problem for rural populations. There was a positive correlation between the absolute number of cases and the altimetric river levels in the Central (p<0.001; R_s = 0.479 linear) and Southwest (p = 0.032; linear R_s = 0.261) regions of the state. Cases were mostly classified as mild (68.6%), followed by moderate (26.8%), and severe (4.6%). The overall lethality rate was 0.3%. Lethality rate among children ≤10 years was 1.3%. Age <10 years [OR = 2.58 (95%CI = 1.47–4.55; p = 0.001)], stings occurring in the rural area [OR = 1.97 (95%CI = 1.18–3.29; p = 0.033) and in the South region of the state [OR = 1.85 (95%CI = 1.17–2.93; p = 0.008)] were independently associated with the risk of developing severity.

Conclusions/Significance

Scorpion stings show an extensive distribution in the Western Brazilian Amazon threatening especially rural populations, children ≤10 in particular. Thus, the mapping of scorpions fauna in different Amazon localities is essential and must be accompanied by the characterization of the main biological activities of the venoms. Urban and farming planning, in parallel with awareness of workers at risk for scorpion stings on the need for personal protective equipment use should be considered as public policies for preventing scorpionism.     

Generation of Domestic Solid Waste in Rural Areas: Case Study of Remote Communities in the Brazilian Amazon

The Brazilian rural population is estimated to be around 30 million people and many rural areas do not have universal access to basic infrastructure services, including those related to solid waste. There are very few scientific studies on rural domestic solid waste and more investigative work is needed to provide information for appropriate solid waste management policies. This paper aims to characterize rural domestic solid waste in terms of quantity and quality. Amazonian rural communities were chosen for our case study. The issue of domestic solid waste was characterized both by means of interviews, at household level, and by a study of industrialized products traded in the communities located along the banks of the Juruá River, in the Brazilian Amazon. Quantitative results have shown that generation of solid waste in these rural communities reaches 0.5 kg/person/day. Organic matter represents 90 % of domestic solid waste generation and is mainly reused to feed animals and/or is composted using a method called paú. Inorganic solid waste (10 %) is either reused, burned or inadequately dumped in open sites. Based on these data, the annual production of solid waste is 437 tons per year in these communities. Since infrastructure services are virtually non-existent in this rural context, even this amount of solid waste may have a serious environmental impact, with negative effects on the population’s health, particularly in terms of hazardous waste. Even though solid waste management solutions for rural populations might not always be based on economic efficiency, decision makers responsible for development and planning should present solutions that are socially, technologically, environmentally and economically suitable for this context.     

Characterization of Indoor Environmental Quality in Primary Schools in Maia: A Portuguese Case Study

Scientific evidence associates indoor environment pollutants with respiratory effects (asthma and allergies), and children constitute one of most sensitive groups. Indoor air quality (IAQ) in schools may indeed be a significant health factor for children, with effects on school attendance and performance. Our aim was to characterize IAQ of classrooms in Maia County (north of Portugal) for which there was no information available. The study was conducted in 21 of the 40 primary schools, selected by stratified random sampling. Depending on the dimension, one or two classrooms were tested at each school. Walkthrough surveys of school grounds, buildings, and individual classrooms were done. Continuous measurements were taken of temperature, relative humidity, airborne respirable particles, total volatile organic compounds, and carbon dioxide, whereas bioaerosols were counted on Plate Count Agar during regular school activities. The indoor arithmetic mean for PM₁₀, CO₂, TCOV, and bioaerosol concentrations were 0.14 mg/m³, 999 ppm, 0.41 mg/m³, and 4140 UCF/m³, respectively. The values of PM₁₀ and CO₂ were close to their acceptable maximum values, but bioaerosols were much higher. This study supports previous studies conducted in school environments and emphasizes the need for proactive indoor air quality audits in school buildings.     

Enumeration and Characterization of Bacterial Colonists of a Submersed Aquatic Plant, Eurasian Watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum L.)

A simple procedure for enumerating and grouping the bacterial colonists of Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum L.) is described. Colony characteristics of bacteria associated with M. spicatum were better defined and more stable on nutrient-poor, diluted nutrient broth agar than on high-nutrient media. Acinetobacter, Cytophaga, Flavobacterium, Moraxella, Pseudomonas and/or Alcaligenes, and Vibrio/Aeromonas spp., as well as two highly fastidious unidentified bacterial groups (gram-negative rods and gram-negative cocci), were associated with cultured watermilfoil during January, February, May, June, July, and August 1988. In Lake Wingra (Madison, Wis.), Micrococcus spp. and enterobacters were also associated with Eurasian watermilfoil during July, August, and October 1987.     

Gender and the Publication Output of Graduate Students: A Case Study

We examine gender differences among the six PhD student cohorts 2004–2009 at the California Institute of Technology using a new dataset that includes information on trainees and their advisors and enables us to construct detailed measures of teams at the advisor level. We focus on the relationship between graduate student publications and: (1) their gender; (2) the gender of the advisor, (3) the gender pairing between the advisor and the student and (4) the gender composition of the team. We find that female graduate students co-author on average 8.5% fewer papers than men; that students writing with female advisors publish 7.7% more. Of particular note is that gender pairing matters: male students working with female advisors publish 10.0% more than male students working with male advisors; women students working with male advisors publish 8.5% less. There is no difference between the publishing patterns of male students working with male advisors and female students working with female advisors. The results persist and are magnified when we focus on the quality of the published articles, as measured by average Impact Factor, instead of number of articles. We find no evidence that the number of publications relates to the gender composition of the team. Although the gender effects are reasonably modest, past research on processes of positive feedback and cumulative advantage suggest that the difference will grow, not shrink, over the careers of these recent cohorts.     

Poverty and Inequality in the Rural Brazilian Amazon: A Multidimensional Approach

This paper analyses poverty and inequality dynamics among smallholders along the Transamazon Highway. We measure changes in poverty and inequality for original settlers and new owners, contrasting income-based with multidimensional indices of well-being. Our results show an overall reduction in both poverty and inequality among smallholders, although poverty decline was more pronounced among new owners, while inequality reduction was larger among original settlers. This trend suggests that families have an initial improvement in livelihood and well-being which tends to reach a limit later—a sign of structural limitations common to rural areas and maybe a replication of boom and bust trends in local economies among Amazonian municipalities. In addition, our multidimensional estimates of well-being reveal that some economically viable land use strategies of smallholders (e.g., pasture) may have important ecological implications for the regional landscape. These findings highlight the public policy challenges for fostering sustainable development among rural populations.     

Fish Farming Effects on Chemical and Microbial Variables of the Water Column: A Spatio-temporal Study Along the Mediterranean Sea

The effects of fish farming on chemical and biological variables of the water column were investigated in three coastal locations along the Mediterranean (Spain, Italy and Greece). Analyses of nutrients, chlorophyll a, particulate organic carbon and nitrogen (POC and PON), heterotrophic bacteria and cyanobacteria (Synechococcus) were carried out on integrated samples (0–30 m depth) taken at various distances from fish farms and the respective reference sites. At one of these sites, water samples were collected by means of Niskin bottles at 09:00, 13:00 and 16:00 h and at three different depths (0 m, 10 m and bottom). Integrated sampling showed no significant changes with distance in any of the variables measured, whereas all variables except PON showed significant changes between the three locations studied. However, changes were found in samples taken by Niskin bottles, with increased concentrations of NH₄⁺, POC, PON and decreased cyanobacteria densities at the surface layer in the immediate vicinity of the cages. Samples taken at the cages in the afternoon showed increased PO₄³⁻ concentrations in comparison to those taken in the morning. Dilution and grazing are probably both responsible for the lack of detectable signs of eutrophication.     

Indigenous Land Use in the Ecuadorian Amazon: A Cross-cultural and Multilevel Analysis

Among the remaining tropical forests of lowland Latin America, many are inhabited by indigenous peoples, and the sustainability of their land uses is a point of heated debate in the conservation community. Numerous small-scale studies have documented changes in indigenous land use in individual communities in the context of expanding frontier settlements and markets, but few studies have included larger populations or multiple ethnic groups. In this paper we use data from a regional-scale survey of five indigenous populations in the Northern Ecuadorian Amazon to describe their agricultural land use practices and investigate the factors that affect those practices. We find the areas cultivated by indigenous households to be small compared to those of nearby mestizo colonists, but a large proportion of indigenous cultivated area is in commercial land uses. We also construct multilevel statistical models to investigate the household and community-level factors that affect indigenous land use. The results reveal significant influences on cultivated area from contextual factors such as access to markets, oil company activities, and the land tenure regime, as well as from household characteristics such as demographic composition, participation in alternative livelihood activities, and human, social and physical capitals. Overall the results are most consistent with market integration as an underlying driver of land use change in indigenous territories of the study area.

P. vivax Malaria and Dengue Fever Co-infection: A Cross-Sectional Study in the Brazilian Amazon

Background

Malaria and dengue are the most prevalent vector-borne diseases worldwide and represent major public health problems. Both are endemic in tropical regions, propitiating co-infection. Only few co-infection cases have been reported around the world, with insufficient data so far to enhance the understanding of the effects of co-infection in the clinical presentation and severity.

Methodology/Principal Findings

A cross-sectional study was conducted (2009 to 2011) in hospitalized patients with acute febrile syndrome in the Brazilian Amazon. All patients were submitted to thick blood smear and PCR for Plasmodium sp. detection, ELISA, PCR and NS1 tests for dengue, viral hepatitis, HIV and leptospirosis. In total, 1,578 patients were recruited. Among them, 176 (11.1%) presented P. vivax malaria mono-infection, 584 (37%) dengue fever mono-infection, and 44 (2.8%) were co-infected. Co-infected patients had a higher chance of presenting severe disease (vs. dengue mono-infected), deep bleeding (vs. P. vivax mono-infected), hepatomegaly, and jaundice (vs. dengue mono-infected).

Conclusions/Significance

In endemic areas for dengue and malaria, jaundice (in dengue patients) and spontaneous bleeding (in malaria patients) should raise the suspicion of co-infection. Besides, whenever co-infection is confirmed, we recommend careful monitoring for bleeding and hepatic complications, which may result in a higher chance of severity, despite of the fact that no increased fatality rate was seen in this group.