The thermal dependence of lizard behaviour

New techniques were utilized to measure burst speed and distance running capacity in six species of lizards and to examine the thermal dependence of these behavioural capacities. These behaviours were repeatable among groups of animals within a species, within a group during the experiments, and among individuals of a group. Burst speeds averaged 130 to 150 m/min for active species, with some individuals exceeding 200 m/min. Total distances run during 2 min averaged 60 to 70 m in species with the greatest stamina. Thermal dependence of these behaviours was low or absent (Q₁₀≤1.5) over the normal range of active body temperatures, and performance was not necessarily maximal at normally experienced body temperatures. These processes have much less thermal dependence than do most physiological processes and suggest adaptations to maintain functional behavioural capacity over a broad range of body temperature.     

The reproductive period of tarantulas is constrained by their thermal preferences (Araneae,Theraphosidae)

Locomotor and physiological performance of ectotherms are affected by temperature. Thermoregulation is achieved by changes in behavior and the selection of micro-habitats with adequate temperatures to maintain the body temperature (T_b) within a range of preference. Apart from this temperature dependence at spatial scales, ectotherms are also affected by temperature at temporal scale. For instance, ectotherms can only be active some months of the year, particularly in temperate environments. Tarantulas are ectotherms that live in burrows most of their life. Nevertheless, after the sexual maturation molt, males leave their refugia and start a wandering life searching for females to mate. The reproductive period varies among species. In some species walking males are seen in late spring or early summer, while in other species males are only seen during fall or winter. Apart from the differences in lifestyles after maturation, tarantulas exhibit sexual dimorphisms in longevity and body mass, having smaller, shorter-lived males. Thus, to optimize energetic budgets, decreasing thermoregulation costs, we hypothesize and examine a putative correlation between an individual's preferred body temperature (T_pref) and the environmental temperature during the reproductive period. Hence, we characterize T_pref in seven tarantula species and analyze which factors (i.e., time of day, body mass, and sex) correlated with it. Furthermore, we assess putative correlated evolution of T_pref with ambient temperature (minima, mean, and maxima) during the reproductive period by means of phylogenetic independent contrasts. We did not find differences in thermal preferences between sexes; and only one species, Acanthoscurria suina, exhibited diel differences in T_pref. We found evidence of correlated evolution between T_pref and minimum temperature during the reproductive period among all seven species studied herein. Our results show that the reproductive period is constrained by thermal preferences, dictating when males can start their wandering life to mate.     

Metabolism,thermoregulation and evaporative water loss in the Chaotung Vole (Eothenomys olitor) in Yunnan-Kweichow Plateau in summer

Proper adjustment of thermoregulatory mechanisms ensures the survival of mammals when they are subjected to seasonal changes in their natural environment. To understand the physiological and ecological adaptations of Eothenomys olitor, we measured their metabolic rate, thermal conductance, body temperature (T_b) and evaporative water loss at a temperature range of 5–30 °C in summer. The thermal neutral zone (TNZ) of E. olitor was 20–27.5 °C, and the mean body temperature was 35.81±0.15 °C. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) was 2.81±0.11 ml O₂/g h and mean minimum thermal conductance (C_m) was 0.18±0.01 ml O₂/g h °C. Evaporative water loss (EWL) in E. olitor increased when the ambient temperature increased. The maximal evaporative water loss was 6.74±0.19 mg H₂O/g h at 30 °C. These results indicated that E. olitor have relatively high BMR, low body temperature, low lower critical temperature, and normal thermal conductance. EWL plays an inportant role in temperature regulation. These characteristics are closely related to the living habitat of the species, and represent its adaptive strategy to the climate of the Yunnan-Kweichow Plateau, a low-latitude, high-altitude region where annual temperature fluctuations are small, but daily temperature fluctuations are greater.     

Thermal acclimation of photosynthesis: on the importance of adjusting our definitions and accounting for thermal acclimation of respiration

While interest in photosynthetic thermal acclimation has been stimulated by climate warming, comparing results across studies requires consistent terminology. We identify five types of photosynthetic adjustments in warming experiments: photosynthesis as measured at the high growth temperature, the growth temperature, and the thermal optimum; the photosynthetic thermal optimum; and leaf-level photosynthetic capacity. Adjustments of any one of these variables need not mean a concurrent adjustment in others, which may resolve apparently contradictory results in papers using different indicators of photosynthetic acclimation. We argue that photosynthetic thermal acclimation (i.e., that benefits a plant in its new growth environment) should include adjustments of both the photosynthetic thermal optimum (T _opt) and photosynthetic rates at the growth temperature (A _growth), a combination termed constructive adjustment. However, many species show reduced photosynthesis when grown at elevated temperatures, despite adjustment of some photosynthetic variables, a phenomenon we term detractive adjustment. An analysis of 70 studies on 103 species shows that adjustment of T _opt and A _growth are more common than adjustment of other photosynthetic variables, but only half of the data demonstrate constructive adjustment. No systematic differences in these patterns were found between different plant functional groups. We also discuss the importance of thermal acclimation of respiration for net photosynthesis measurements, as respiratory temperature acclimation can generate apparent acclimation of photosynthetic processes, even if photosynthesis is unaltered. We show that while dark respiration is often used to estimate light respiration, the ratio of light to dark respiration shifts in a non-predictable manner with a change in leaf temperature.     

Microhabitats choice in intertidal gastropods is species-, temperature- and habitat-specific

Understanding how behavioural adaptations can limit thermal stress for intertidal gastropods will be crucial for climate models. Some behavioural adaptations are already known to limit desiccation and thermal stresses as shell-lifting, shell-standing, towering, aggregation of conspecifics or habitat selection. Here we used the IRT (i.e. infrared thermography) to investigate the thermal heterogeneity of a rocky platform, with four different macrohabitats (i.e. bare rock, rock with barnacles, mussels and mussels incrusted by barnacles) over four thermally contrasted months. We investigated the body temperature of Littorina littorea and Patella vulgata found on this platform and the temperature of their microhabitat (i.e. the substratum within one body length around of each individual). We also considered the aggregation behaviour of each species and assessed the percentage of thermal microhabitat choice (i.e choice for a microhabitat with a temperature different than the surrounding substrate). We did not find any aggregation of L. littorea on the rocky platform during the four studied months. In contrast, P. vulgata were found in aggregates in all the studied periods and within each habitat, but there was no difference in body temperature between aggregated and solitary individuals. These two gastropods species were preferentially found on rock covered by barnacles in the four studied months. The presence of a thermal microhabitat choice in L. littorea and P. vulgata is habitat-dependent and also season-dependent. In June, July and November the choice was for a microhabitat with temperatures lower than the temperatures of the surrounding substrate whereas in December, individuals choose microhabitats with higher temperatures than the temperatures of their substratum. Taken together, these results suggest that gastropods species are able to explore their environment to find sustainable thermal macrohabitats and microhabitats and adapt this behaviour in function of the conditions of temperatures.     

Functional characterization of the DnaK chaperone system from the archaeon Methanothermobacter thermautotrophicusΔH

We characterized the biochemical and functional properties of the DnaK system from the archaeon Methanothermobacter thermautotrophicus ΔH. In contrast to the eubacterial chaperone components the archaeal Hsp70 system shows thermal transitions only slightly above the optimal environmental temperature (65 °C). Nevertheless, it prevents aggregation of luciferase in the physiological temperature range of the organism, but is also fully functional at 30 °C in luciferase refolding. Additionally, GrpE_M.th. and DnaJ_M.th. substitute their eubacterial counterparts whereas DnaK_M.th. is only functional with its native cochaperones which could be attributed to a functional specialization of the eubacterial chaperones during evolution.     

Thermal biology of the southernmost lizards in the world: Liolaemus sarmientoi and Liolaemus magellanicus from Patagonia,Argentina

We determined the efficiency of thermoregulation by the southernmost liolaemids Liolaemus sarmientoi and L. magellanicus from Patagonia, Argentina (51°S), by measuring body (T_b), microenvironmental, and operative temperatures in the field, and preferred body temperatures in the laboratory (T_pref). L. sarmientoi was found to be a poor thermoregulator, whereas L. magellanicus was deemed to be a constrained thermoconformer. Among all known species of Liolaemus, L. sarmientoi and L. magellanicus had the lowest T_b's when tested in the field; however, their T_pref's were similar to other liolaemids. These data suggest that these southernmost liolaemid species have not evolved appropriate thermoregulatory behaviors or made adequate physiological adaptations to face the extreme thermal challenges of their environment.     

A Novel Mercuric Reductase from the Unique Deep Brine Environment of Atlantis II in the Red Sea

A unique combination of physicochemical conditions prevails in the lower convective layer (LCL) of the brine pool at Atlantis II (ATII) Deep in the Red Sea. With a maximum depth of over 2000 m, the pool is characterized by acidic pH (5.3), high temperature (68 °C), salinity (26%), low light levels, anoxia, and high concentrations of heavy metals. We have established a metagenomic dataset derived from the microbial community in the LCL, and here we describe a gene for a novel mercuric reductase, a key component of the bacterial detoxification system for mercuric and organomercurial species. The metagenome-derived gene and an ortholog from an uncultured soil bacterium were synthesized and expressed in Escherichia coli. The properties of their products show that, in contrast to the soil enzyme, the ATII-LCL mercuric reductase is functional in high salt, stable at high temperatures, resistant to high concentrations of Hg²⁺, and efficiently detoxifies Hg²⁺ in vivo. Interestingly, despite the marked functional differences between the orthologs, their amino acid sequences differ by less than 10%. Site-directed mutagenesis and kinetic analysis of the mutant enzymes, in conjunction with three-dimensional modeling, have identified distinct structural features that contribute to extreme halophilicity, thermostability, and high detoxification capacity, suggesting that these were acquired independently during the evolution of this enzyme. Thus, our work provides fundamental structural insights into a novel protein that has undergone multiple biochemical and biophysical adaptations to promote the survival of microorganisms that reside in the extremely demanding environment of the ATII-LCL.     

Elucidating the functional evolution of heat sensors among Xenopus species adapted to different thermal niches by ancestral sequence reconstruction

Ambient temperature fluctuations are detected via the thermosensory system which allows animals to seek preferable thermal conditions or escape from harmful temperatures. Evolutionary changes in thermal perception have thus potentially played crucial roles in niche selection. The genus Xenopus (clawed frog) is suitable for investigating the relationship between thermal perception and niche selection due to their diverse latitudinal and altitudinal distributions. Here we performed comparative analyses of the neuronal heat sensors TRPV1 and TRPA1 among closely related Xenopus species (X. borealis, X. muelleri, X. laevis, and X. tropicalis) to elucidate their functional evolution and to assess whether their functional differences correlate with thermal niche selection among the species. Comparison of TRPV1 among four extant Xenopus species and reconstruction of the ancestral TRPV1 revealed that TRPV1 responses to repeated heat stimulation were specifically altered in the lineage leading to X. tropicalis which inhabits warmer niches. Moreover, the thermal sensitivity of TRPA1 was lower in X. tropicalis than the other species, although the thermal sensitivity of TRPV1 and TRPA1 was not always lower in species that inhabit warmer niches than the species inhabit cooler niches. However, a clear correlation was found in species differences in TRPA1 activity. Heat‐evoked activity of TRPA1 in X. borealis and X. laevis, which are adapted to cooler niches, was significantly higher than in X. tropicalis and X. muelleri which are adapted to warmer niches. These findings suggest that the functional properties of heat sensors changed during Xenopus evolution, potentially altering the preferred temperature ranges among species.     

Rising temperature reduces divergence in resource use strategies in coexisting parasitoid species

Coexistence of species sharing the same resources is often possible if species are phylogenetically divergent in resource acquisition and allocation traits, decreasing competition between them. Developmental and life-history traits related to resource use are influenced by environmental conditions such as temperature, but thermal trait responses may differ among species. An increase in ambient temperature may, therefore, affect trait divergence within a community, and potentially species coexistence. Parasitoids are interesting models to test this hypothesis, because multiple species commonly attack the same host, and employ divergent larval and adult host use strategies. In particular, development mode (arrested or continued host growth following parasitism) has been recognized as a major organiser of parasitoid life histories. Here, we used a comparative trait-based approach to determine thermal responses of development time, body mass, egg load, metabolic rate and energy use of the coexisting Drosophila parasitoids Asobara tabida, Leptopilina heterotoma, Trichopria drosophilae and Spalangia erythromera. We compared trait values between species and development modes, and calculated trait divergence in response to temperature, using functional diversity indices. Parasitoids differed in their thermal response for dry mass, metabolic rate and lipid use throughout adult life, but only teneral lipid reserves and egg load were affected by developmental mode. Species-specific trait responses to temperature were probably determined by their adaptations in resource use (e.g. lipogenesis or ectoparasitism). Overall, trait values of parasitoid species converged at the higher temperature. Our results suggest that local effects of warming could affect host resource partitioning by reducing trait diversity in communities.     

Temperature modulates Fischerella thermalis ecotypes in Porcelana Hot Spring

In the Porcelana Hot Spring (Northern Patagonia), true-branching cyanobacteria are the dominant primary producers in microbial mats, and they are mainly responsible for carbon and nitrogen fixation. However, little is known about their metabolic and genomic adaptations at high temperatures. Therefore, in this study, a total of 81 Fischerella thermalis strains (also known as Mastigocladus laminosus) were isolated from mat samples in a thermal gradient between 61–46 °C. The complementary use of proteomic comparisons from these strains, and comparative genomics of F. thermalis pangenomes, suggested that at least two different ecotypes were present within these populations. MALDI-TOF MS analysis separated the strains into three clusters; two with strains obtained from mats within the upper temperature range (61 and 54 °C), and a third obtained from mats within the lower temperature range (51 and 46 °C). Both groups possessed different but synonymous nifH alleles. The main proteomic differences were associated with the abundance of photosynthesis-related proteins. Three F. thermalis metagenome assembled genomes (MAGs) were described from 66, 58 and 48 °C metagenomes. These pangenomes indicated a divergence of orthologous genes and a high abundance of exclusive genes at 66 °C. These results improved the current understanding of thermal adaptation of F. thermalis and the evolution of these thermophilic cyanobacterial species.     

Thermal tolerance in the Andean toad Rhinella spinulosa (Anura: Bufonidae) at three sites located along a latitudinal gradient in Chile

Rhinella spinulosa is one of the anuran species with the greatest presence in Chile. This species mainly inhabits mountain habitats and is distributed latitudinally along the western slope of the Andes Range. These habitats undergo great temperature fluctuations, exerting pressure on the amphibian. To identify the physiological strategies and thermal behavior of this species, we analyzed the temperature variables CT_min, CT_max, TTR, τ_heat, and τ_cool in individuals of three sites from a latitudinal gradient (22°S to 37°S). The amphibians were acclimated to 10 °C and 20 °C and fed ad libitum. The results indicate that the species has a high thermal tolerance range, with a mean of 38.14±1.34 °C, a critical thermal maxima of 34.6–41.4 °C, and a critical thermal minima of 2.6–0.8 °C, classifying the species as eurythermic. Furthermore, there were significant differences in CT_máx and TTR only in the northern site. The differences in thermal time constants between sites are due to the effects of size and body mass. For example, those from the central site had larger size and greater thermal inertia; therefore, they warmed and cooled in a slower manner.The wide thermal limits determined in R. spinulosa confirm that it is a thermo-generalist species, a characteristic that allows the species to survive in adverse microclimatic conditions. The level of plasticity in critical temperatures seems ecologically relevant and supports the acclimatization of thermal limits as an important factor for ectothermic animals to adapt to climate change.     

Accelerated Evolutionary Rate of the Myoglobin Gene in Long-Diving Whales

Cetaceans, early in their evolutionary history, had developed many physiological adaptations to secondarily return to the sea. Among these adaptations, changes in molecules that transport oxygen and that ultimately support large periods of acute tissue hypoxia probably represent one big step toward the conquest of aquatic environments. Myoglobin contributes to intracellular oxygen storage and transcellular diffusion of oxygen in muscle, and plays an important role in supplying oxygen in hypoxic or ischemic conditions. Here we looked for evidence of adaptive molecular evolution of myoglobin in the cetacean lineage, relative to their terrestrial counterparts. We performed a comparative analysis to examine the variation of the parameter ω (d _N/d _S) and infer past period of adaptive evolution during the cetacean transition from the terrestrial to the aquatic environment. We also analyzed the changes in amino acid properties. At the nucleotide level, the results showed significant differences in selective pressure between cetacean and non-cetacean myoglobin (ω value three times higher in cetaceans when compared to terrestrial mammals), and also among cetacean lineages according to their diving capacities. Interestingly, both families with long duration diving cetaceans present two parallel substitutions (on sites 4 and 12). Regarding the amino acid properties, our analysis identified four significant physicochemical amino acid changes among residues in myoglobin protein under positive destabilizing selection.     

Ecological differences influence the thermal sensitivity of swimming performance in two co-occurring mysid shrimp species with climate change implications

Temperature strongly affects performance in ectotherms. As ocean warming continues, performance of marine species will be impacted. Many studies have focused on how warming will impact physiology, life history, and behavior, but few studies have investigated how ecological and behavioral traits of organisms will affect their response to changing thermal environments. Here, we assessed the thermal tolerances and thermal sensitivity of swimming performance of two sympatric mysid shrimp species of the Northwest Atlantic. Neomysis americana and Heteromysis formosa overlap in habitat and many aspects of their ecological niche, but only N. americana exhibits vertical migration. In temperate coastal ecosystems, temperature stratification of the water column exposes vertical migrators to a wider range of temperatures on a daily basis. We found that N. americana had a significantly lower critical thermal minimum (CT_min) and critical thermal maximum (CT_max). However, both mysid species had a buffer of at least 4 °C between their CT_max and the 100-year projection for mean summer water temperatures of 28 °C. Swimming performance of the vertically migrating species was more sensitive to temperature variation, and this species exhibited faster burst swimming speeds. The generalist performance curve of H. formosa and specialist curve of N. americana are consistent with predictions based on the exposure of each species to temperature variation such that higher within-generation variability promotes specialization. However, these species violate the assumption of the specialist-generalist tradeoff in that the area under their performance curves is not constant. Our results highlight the importance of incorporating species-specific responses to temperature based on the ecology and behavior of organisms into climate change prediction models.     

Temperature response of photosynthesis in C3, C4, and CAM plants: temperature acclimation and temperature adaptation

Most plants show considerable capacity to adjust their photosynthetic characteristics to their growth temperatures (temperature acclimation). The most typical case is a shift in the optimum temperature for photosynthesis, which can maximize the photosynthetic rate at the growth temperature. These plastic adjustments can allow plants to photosynthesize more efficiently at their new growth temperatures. In this review article, we summarize the basic differences in photosynthetic reactions in C₃, C₄, and CAM plants. We review the current understanding of the temperature responses of C₃, C₄, and CAM photosynthesis, and then discuss the underlying physiological and biochemical mechanisms for temperature acclimation of photosynthesis in each photosynthetic type. Finally, we use the published data to evaluate the extent of photosynthetic temperature acclimation in higher plants, and analyze which plant groups (i.e., photosynthetic types and functional types) have a greater inherent ability for photosynthetic acclimation to temperature than others, since there have been reported interspecific variations in this ability. We found that the inherent ability for temperature acclimation of photosynthesis was different: (1) among C₃, C₄, and CAM species; and (2) among functional types within C₃ plants. C₃ plants generally had a greater ability for temperature acclimation of photosynthesis across a broad temperature range, CAM plants acclimated day and night photosynthetic process differentially to temperature, and C₄ plants was adapted to warm environments. Moreover, within C₃ species, evergreen woody plants and perennial herbaceous plants showed greater temperature homeostasis of photosynthesis (i.e., the photosynthetic rate at high-growth temperature divided by that at low-growth temperature was close to 1.0) than deciduous woody plants and annual herbaceous plants, indicating that photosynthetic acclimation would be particularly important in perennial, long-lived species that would experience a rise in growing season temperatures over their lifespan. Interestingly, across growth temperatures, the extent of temperature homeostasis of photosynthesis was maintained irrespective of the extent of the change in the optimum temperature for photosynthesis (T _opt), indicating that some plants achieve greater photosynthesis at the growth temperature by shifting T _opt, whereas others can also achieve greater photosynthesis at the growth temperature by changing the shape of the photosynthesis–temperature curve without shifting T _opt. It is considered that these differences in the inherent stability of temperature acclimation of photosynthesis would be reflected by differences in the limiting steps of photosynthetic rate.     

Light-Related Photosynthetic Characteristics of Lotic Macroalgae

Photosynthetic characteristics in response to irradiance were analysed in 42 populations of 33 macroalgal species by two distinct techniques (chlorophyll fluorescence and oxygen evolution). Photosynthesis–irradiance (PI) curves based on the two techniques indicated adaptations to low irradiance reflected by low saturation values, high to moderate values of photosynthetic efficiency (α) and photoinhibition (β), for Bacillariophyta and Rhodophyta, which suggests they are typically shade-adapted algae. In contrast, most species of Chlorophyta were reported as sun adapted algae, characterized by high values of I _k and low of α, and lack of or low photoinhibition. Cyanophyta and Xanthophyta were intermediate groups in terms of light adaptations. Photoinhibition was observed in variable degrees in all algal groups, under field and laboratory conditions, which confirms that it is not artificially induced by experimental conditions, but is rather a common and natural phenomenon of the lotic macroalgae. Low values of compensation irradiance (I _c) were found, which indicate that these algae can keep an autotrophic metabolism even under very low irradiances. High ratios (>2) of photosynthesis/respiration were found in most algae, which indicates a considerable net gain. These two physiological characteristics suggest that macroalgae may be important primary producers in lotic ecosystems. Saturation parameters (I _k and I _s) occurred in a relatively narrow range of irradiances (100–400 μmol photons m^?2s^?1), with some exceptions (higher in some filamentous green algae or lower in red algae). These parameters were way below the irradiances measured at collecting sites for most algae, which means that most of the available light energy was not photochemically converted via photosynthesis. Acclimation to ambient PAR was observed, as revealed by lower values of I _k and I _cand higher values of α and quantum yield in algae from shaded streams, and vice versa. Forms living within the boundary layer (crusts) showed responses of shade-adapted species and had the highest values of P _max, α and quantum yield, whereas the opposite trend was observed in gelatinous forms (colonies and filaments). These results suggests adaptation to the light regime rather than functional attributes related to the growth form.     

Thermal Preference of the Bush Cricket <Emphasis Type="Italic">Isophya rizeensis</Emphasis>; Testing the Effect of Countergradient Selection

Thermal preference is one of the most crucial components of behavioral thermoregulation in ectotherms, and documenting the adaptation of thermal preference carries great importance for studying the evolution of thermal biology. However there are not many studies focusing on the adaptation of thermal preference in elevational and latitudinal gradients. Isophya rizeensis is a color polymorphic bush cricket species endemic to the mountainous region of northeastern Turkey. Populations of this species are distributed in a wide elevational range between 350 and 2300 m. In this study, we hypothesized that the thermal preference of Isophya rizeensis might follow a countergradient variation where crickets from higher altitudes have higher temperature preferences compared to crickets from lower altitudes. To test this hypothesis, thermal preference values (T _pref ) of crickets from three altitudes groups (low, middle and high) were measured with a thermal gradient experiment. Additionally, body temperatures (T _b ) and environmental temperatures (T _a ) were measured in field. Deviation values of T _b and T _a from T _pref were calculated to investigate the extent of thermoregulation. As Isophya rizeensis is color polymorphic species where morphology pattern changes from lighter to darker types with increasing altitude we also tested whether coloration has any effect on temperature excess (T _ex ) and thermoregulation. Thermal preference values did not differ significantly between three groups and also colouration does not influence the extent of thermoregulation in this species. These results indicate that there is not sufficient evidence for the existence of a countergradient selection related with thermal behavior. However, the deviation of body (D _b ) and environmental (D _a ) temperatures suggest that at higher altitudes thermoregulation might be more efficient than lower altitudes.     

Lineage-Specific Responses of Tooth Shape in Murine Rodents (Murinae,Rodentia) to Late Miocene Dietary Change in the Siwaliks of Pakistan

Past ecological responses of mammals to climate change are recognized in the fossil record by adaptive significance of morphological variations. To understand the role of dietary behavior on functional adaptations of dental morphology in rodent evolution, we examine evolutionary change of tooth shape in late Miocene Siwalik murine rodents, which experienced a dietary shift toward C₄ diets during late Miocene ecological change indicated by carbon isotopic evidence. Geometric morphometric analysis in the outline of upper first molars captures dichotomous lineages of Siwalik murines, in agreement with phylogenetic hypotheses of previous studies (two distinct clades: the Karnimata and Progonomys clades), and indicates lineage-specific functional responses to mechanical properties of their diets. Tooth shapes of the two clades are similar at their sympatric origin but deviate from each other with decreasing overlap through time. Shape change in the Karnimata clade is associated with greater efficiency of propalinal chewing for tough diets than in the Progonomys clade. Larger body mass in Karnimata may be related to exploitation of lower-quality food items, such as grasses, than in smaller-bodied Progonomys. The functional and ecophysiological aspects of Karnimata exploiting C₄ grasses are concordant with their isotopic dietary preference relative to Progonomys. Lineage-specific selection was differentially greater in Karnimata, and a faster rate of shape change toward derived Karnimata facilitated inclusion of C₄ grasses in the diet. Sympatric speciation in these clades is most plausibly explained by interspecific competition on resource utilization between the two, based on comparisons of our results with the carbon isotope data. Interspecific competition with Karnimata may have suppressed morphological innovation of the Progonomys clade. Pairwise analyses of morphological and carbon isotope data can uncover ecological causes of sympatric speciation and define functional adaptations of teeth to resources.     

Chasing the Patagonian sun: comparative thermal biology of Liolaemus lizards

The importance of the thermal environment for ectotherms and its relationship with thermal physiology and ecology is widely recognized. Several models have been proposed to explain the evolution of the thermal biology of ectotherms, but experimental studies have provided mixed support. Lizards from the Liolaemus goetschi group can be found along a wide latitudinal range across Argentina. The group is monophyletic and widely distributed, and therefore provides excellent opportunities to study the evolution of thermal biology. We studied thermal variables of 13 species of the L. goetschi group, in order to answer three questions. First, are aspects of the thermal biology of the L. goetschi group modelled by the environment or are they evolutionarily conservative? Second, have thermal characteristics of these animals co-evolved? And third, how do the patterns of co-evolution observed within the L. goetschi group compare to those in a taxonomically wider selection of species of Liolaemus? We collected data on 13 focal species and used species information of Liolaemus lizards available in the literature and additional data obtained by the authors. We tackled these questions using both conventional and phylogenetically based analyses. Our results show that lizards from the L. goetschi group and the genus Liolaemus in general vary in critical thermal minimum in relation to mean air temperature, and particularly the L. goetschi group shows that air temperature is associated with critical thermal range, as well as with body temperature. Although the effect of phylogeny cannot be ignored, our results indicate that these thermal biology aspects are modelled by cold environments of Patagonia, while other aspects (preferred body temperature and critical thermal maximum) are more conservative. We found evidence of co-evolutionary patterns between critical thermal minimum and preferred body temperature at both phylogenetic scales (the L. goetschi group and the extended sample of 68 Liolaemus species).