A distinct temporal separation of maximum bacterial numbers and phytoplankton biomass in the open-water zone of Lake Maarsseveen I: Results and literature review

Summary Starting in March there was an increase in bacterial number until a maximum was reached at the end of April; from then there was a decrease in number until the end of summer. The biomass of the phytoplankton followed an opposite curve,viz. a maximum in February, a minimum at the end of April and several pulses in summer. Two hypothetical models are described to explain this phenomenon. (a) Competition for phosphate between phytoplankton and bacteria (with subsequent grazing by herbivorous zooplankton on bacteria), and (b) excretion by bacteria of compounds that inhibit phytoplankton growth.     

Diel variations of phytoplankton and bacterioplankton production rates in four tropical lakes in the middle Rio Doce basin (southeastern Brazil)

Studies on phytoplankton production conducted in lakes of the middle Rio Doce basin demonstrated significant diurnal and seasonal variations with high phytoplankton production rates recorded in the morning hours during the dry periods. Bacterial production data for these lakes had not been recorded until now. The present study had as working hypothesis that bacterial production may contribute significantly to carbon fixation, particularly in lakes rich in organic matter and that this production varies diurnal and seasonally thus altering BP/PP ratios. In order to test this hypothesis the study had as objective to estimate phytoplankton and bacterioplankton production rates along with the concentrations of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in two periods of the day (morning and afternoon) and in two seasons (dry and rainy), in four lakes, being two lakes within the Rio Doce State Park and two at its surroundings. Among the selected lakes, Lake Amarela showed the highest nutrient concentrations and highest bacterial production. The results allow to conclude that despite exhibiting lower values when compared with the ones recorded for phytoplankton production, bacterioplankton production is essential to the general metabolism of the lakes, particularly for those rich in organic matter and exhibiting oligo-mesotrophic conditions.     

Production of lower-trophic organisms during incubation of unaltered deep-sea water

Incubation of unaltered deep-sea water and grazing experiment of nano- and micro- protozooplankton during incubation of deep-sea water were carried out to quantitatively characterize the planktonic structures of lower-trophic organisms and clarify the trophic pathways and controlling mechanisms involved. Phytoplankton biomass increased to 637 mg as carbon weight in a 500-l tank on Day 7 and was dominant in the planktonic structure of lower-trophic organisms. Nitrates in the incubation water was depleted after Day 7 and phytoplankton biomass decreased rapidly. On the other hand, bacteria, heterotrophic nano-flagellates and ciliates increased toward the end of incubation and were dominant in the later days of incubation. In grazing experiments on microbial organisms, bacterivory is more important for the carbon pathway in microbial food webs than herbivory when phytoplankton biomass is less than that of bacteria (low P/B conditions), while herbivory is more important than bacterivory when phytoplankton biomass is more than that of bacteria (high P/B conditions). Deep-sea water exhibited high phytoplankton productivity due to inherent high nutrients values. After depletion of nutrients, phytoplankton decreased (due also to enhanced nano- and micro-zooplankton grazing) and microbial organisms dominated. Thus, nutrients in the incubation water control the planktonic structure of lower-trophic organisms.     

Seasonal variations of metabolically active bacteria in a hypertrophic lake (Hartbeespoort Dam,South Africa)

The number of metabolically active bacteria was measured with nalidixic acid over two annual cycles at three depths in the epilimnion of hypertrophic Hartbeespoort Dam, South Africa. Concurrent measurements were made of water temperature, DOC, phytoplankton production of dissolved (EDOC) and particulate organic carbon, chlorophyll a and the uptake of glucose (V_max). The objective was to determine the dominant factors correlated to the number of metabolically active bacteria and the relationship between active bacterial numbers and heterotrophic activity.The number of active bacteria was usually highest at the surface and ranged between 0.70 and 6.82 x 10⁶ cells ml^–1. The dominant factors correlated to the number of bacteria at the surface were water temperature (r = 0.65, n = 54, p<0.001), primary production (r = 0.53, n = 51, p<0.001) and EDOC (r = 0.37, n = 45, p = 0.005). Surface V_max for glucose ranged between 0.11 and 4.0 µgC 1^–1 h^–1 and was positively correlated to the number of active bacteria (r = 0.61, n = 53, p<0.001). The specific activity index (10^–12 µgC cell^–1 h^–1) varied between 80 and 2290 at the surface and was most strongly correlated to EDOC (r = 0.70, n = 48, p<0.001). Relationships between active bacterial numbers, water temperature, phytoplankton activity and glucose uptake were also found at two additional depths within the epilimnion. These data suggest that bacterial populations in nutrient enriched lakes contain a large number of metabolically active cells with high individual activity as a result of enhanced phytoplankton growth.     

Elemental ratios and the uptake and release of nutrients by phytoplankton and bacteria in three lakes of the Canadian shield

The dynamics of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P), elemental ratios, and dark uptake/release of N and P in bacterial and phytoplankton size fractions were studied during summer 1992 in three lakes of contrasting food web structure and trophic status (L240, L110, L227). We wished to determine if phytoplankton and bacteria differed in their elemental characteristics and to evaluate whether the functional role of bacteria in nutrient cycling (i.e., as sink or source) depended on bacterial elemental characteristics. Bacterial contributions to total suspended particulate material and to fluxes of nutrients in the dark were substantial and varied for different elements. This indicated that some techniques for assaying phytoplankton physiological condition are compromised by bacterial contributions. C/N ratios were generally less variable than C/P and N/P ratios. Both elemental ratios and biomass-normalized N and P flux indicated that phytoplankton growth in each lake was predominantly P-limited, although in L227 these data reflect the dominance of N-fixing cyanobacteria, and N was likely limiting early in the sampling season. In L227, phytoplankton N/P ratio and biomass-normalized N flux were negatively correlated, indicating that flux data were likely a reasonable measure of the N status of the phytoplankton. However, for L227 phytoplankton, P-flux per unit biomass was a hyperbolic function of N/P, suggesting that the dominant L227 cyanobacteria have a limited uptake and storage capacity and that P-flux per unit biomass may not be a good gauge of the P-limitation status of phytoplankton in this situation. Examination of N-flux data in the bacterial size fraction relative to the N/P ratio of the bacteria revealed a threshold N/P ratio (22:1 N/P, by atoms), below which, bacteria took up and sequestered added N, and above which, N was released. Thus, the functional role of bacteria in N cycling in these ecosystems depended on their N/P stoichiometry.     

Phytoplankton spatial distribution on the Continental Shelf off Rio de Janeiro,from Paraíba do Sul River to Cabo Frio

Given the heterogeneous oceanographic conditions observed in the continental shelf and slope off Rio de Janeiro, the phytoplankton community is expected to adapt to the diverse trophic conditions using distinct strategies. Considering the C-S-R triangle, distinct phytoplankton taxa are expected to occur in Tropical Water (TW), in South Atlantic Central Water (SACW) and in Coastal Water (CW). The study area extends from Paraíba do Sul River mouth to the region of Cabo Frio. Samples were collected on 28 stations, in 2011 austral summer. 209 phytoplankton taxa were observed, mainly dinoflagellates (93), diatoms (71), and coccolitophores (30). TW dominated the surface waters of the continental shelf and slope, and a typical tropical phytoplankton community, composed by stress-tolerant taxa, was observed. The rise in nitrate concentration caused by SACW uplift in the shelf and in the continental slope, at subsurface waters, and in silicate, associated with the Paraíba do Sul riverine plume, led to shifts in the phytoplankton community, increasing the contribution of ruderal taxa. The grouping of phytoplankton assemblages only in traditional groups would result in loss of information about the factors that determine community dynamics since the different species in each of these groups frequently share specific traits.     

IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIA ASSOCIATED WITH DINOFLAGELLATES (DINOPHYCEAE) ALEXANDRIUM SPP. USING TYRAMIDE SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION–FLUORESCENT IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION AND CONFOCAL MICROSCOPY1

In the marine environment, phytoplankton and bacterioplankton can be physically associated. Such association has recently been hypothesized to be involved in the toxicity of the dinoflagellate genus Alexandrium. However, the methods, which have been used so far to identify, localize, and quantify bacteria associated with phytoplankton, are either destructive, time consuming, or lack precision. In the present study we combined tyramide signal amplification–fluorescent in situ hybridization (TSA‐FISH) with confocal microscopy to determine the physical association of dinoflagellate cells with bacteria. Dinoflagellate attached microflora was successfully identified with TSA‐FISH, whereas FISH using monolabeled probes failed to detect bacteria, because of the dinoflagellate autofluorescence. Bacteria attached to entire dinoflagellates were further localized and distinguished from those attached to empty theca, by using calcofluor and DAPI, two fluorochromes that stain dinoflagellate theca and DNA, respectively. The contribution of specific bacterial taxa of attached microflora was assessed by double hybridization. Endocytoplasmic and endonuclear bacteria were successfully identified in the nonthecate dinoflagellate Gyrodinium instriatum. In contrast, intracellular bacteria were not observed in either toxic or nontoxic strains of Alexandrium spp. Finally, the method was successfully tested on natural phytoplankton assemblages, suggesting that this combination of techniques could prove a useful tool for the simultaneous identification, localization, and quantification of bacteria physically associated with dinoflagellates and more generally with phytoplankton.     

Net production and consumption of fluorescent colored dissolved organic matter by natural bacterial assemblages growing on marine phytoplankton exudates

An understanding of the distribution of colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM) in the oceans and its role in the global carbon cycle requires a better knowledge of the colored materials produced and consumed by marine phytoplankton and bacteria. In this work, we examined the net uptake and release of CDOM by a natural bacterial community growing on DOM derived from four phytoplankton species cultured under axenic conditions. Fluorescent humic-like substances exuded by phytoplankton (excitation/emission [Ex/Em] wavelength, 310 nm/392 nm; Coble's peak M) were utilized by bacteria in different proportions depending on the phytoplankton species of origin. Furthermore, bacteria produced humic-like substances that fluoresce at an Ex/Em wavelength of 340 nm/440 nm (Coble's peak C). Differences were also observed in the Ex/Em wavelengths of the protein-like materials (Coble's peak T) produced by phytoplankton and bacteria. The induced fluorescent emission of CDOM produced by prokaryotes was an order of magnitude higher than that of CDOM produced by eukaryotes. We have also examined the final compositions of the bacterial communities growing on the exudates, which differed markedly depending on the phytoplankton species of origin. Alteromonas and Roseobacter were dominant during all the incubations on Chaetoceros sp. and Prorocentrum minimum exudates, respectively. Alteromonas was the dominant group growing on Skeletonema costatum exudates during the exponential growth phase, but it was replaced by Roseobacter afterwards. On Micromonas pusilla exudates, Roseobacter was replaced by Bacteroidetes after the exponential growth phase. Our work shows that fluorescence excitation-emission matrices of CDOM can be a helpful tool for the identification of microbial sources of DOM in the marine environment, but further studies are necessary to explore the association of particular bacterial groups with specific fluorophores.     

The influence of bacteria on the arsenic species produced by laboratory cultures of the marine phytoplankton Dunaliella tertiolecta

To assess whether bacteria influence the biogeochemical cycling of arsenic by laboratory cultures of the marine phytoplankton Dunaliella tertiolecta, the arsenic species produced by D. tertiolecta were compared in “operationally sterile” and bacteria spiked cultures. It was observed that glycerol (Gly-) arsenoriboside (41–78 %), phosphate (PO₄?) arsenoriboside (7–38 %) and arsenate (As(V)) (15–21 %) were the major water-soluble arsenic species in all D. tertiolecta cultures irrespective of whether cultures were operationally sterile or contained added bacteria. PO₄-riboside (46–74 %) and Gly-riboside (24–36 %) were also the major arsenic species in hydrolysed lipid extracts of D. tertiolecta irrespective of whether cultures were operationally sterile or contained bacteria. In addition to similarities in the arsenic species produced, total arsenic concentrations and culture growth did not differ relative to whether cultures were operationally sterile or not. Similar bacterial strains were identified in all D. tertiolecta cultures irrespective of whether bacteria were added or not. Consequently, it is evident that the presence of “foreign” or “added” bacteria in D. tertiolecta has minimal influence on the metabolism and cycling of arsenic by phytoplankton. Thus, the use of laboratory phytoplankton cultures containing bacteria may be appropriate means to investigate arsenic biogeochemical cycling unlike previously believed.     

Phylogenetic diversity and specificity of bacteria closely associated with Alexandrium spp. and other phytoplankton

While several studies have suggested that bacterium-phytoplankton interactions have the potential to dramatically influence harmful algal bloom dynamics, little is known about how bacteria and phytoplankton communities interact at the species composition level. The objective of the current study was to determine whether there are specific associations between diverse phytoplankton and the bacteria that co-occur with them. We determined the phylogenetic diversity of bacterial assemblages associated with 10 Alexandrium strains and representatives of the major taxonomic groups of phytoplankton in the Gulf of Maine. For this analysis we chose xenic phytoplankton cultures that (i) represented a broad taxonomic range, (ii) represented a broad geographic range for Alexandrium spp. isolates, (iii) grew under similar cultivation conditions, (iv) had a minimal length of time since the original isolation, and (v) had been isolated from a vegetative phytoplankton cell. 16S rRNA gene fragments of most Bacteria were amplified from DNA extracted from cultures and were analyzed by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and sequencing. A greater number of bacterial species were shared by different Alexandrium cultures, regardless of the geographic origin, than by Alexandrium species and nontoxic phytoplankton from the Gulf of Maine. In particular, members of the Roseobacter clade showed a higher degree of association with Alexandrium than with other bacterial groups, and many sequences matched sequences reported to be associated with other toxic dinoflagellates. These results provide evidence for specificity in bacterium-phytoplankton associations.     

Influence of phytoplankton lysis or grazing on bacterial metabolism and trophic relationships

Experimental microcosms were used to study the dynamics of heterotrophic bacterial populations with respect to phytoplankton loss. In a two-stage linked culture system, we artificially separated production and loss processes of a diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. In the first (productive) stage, the algae developed axenically and continuously. The outflow was fluxed in two degradation stages, where phytoplankton-derived detritus resulted respectively from: (1) excretion and by-products of phagotrophic organisms (protozoans), and (2) bacterial degradation through bacterial attachment and lysis. According to the phytoplankton decay mode, i.e., lysis or grazing, bacterial adaptations were different. The study of bacterial productivity and aminopeptidase activity showed specific bacterial evolution during the succession of different prey-predator relationships. The occurrence of aggregates allowed nanoflagellates to develop an alternative diet; they fed not only on bacteria, but also on partially degraded phytoplankton detritus, inducing a strong short-cut in the food chain. Sources and controls of extracellular proteolytic activity are discussed. Such experimental approaches are interesting because they separate bacterial lysis and protozoan grazing of phytoplankton, as well as the fates of their corresponding phytoplankton detritus in the microbial food web.     

Planktonic food chains of a highly humic lake

The development and metabolism of the plankton of a highly humic lake were followed over the vernal primary production maximum. The study was made in a mesocosm in which large filter feeders, typical of this lake in summer, were absent. During the rising phase of phytoplankton, the community was predominantly autotrophic. The most important constituents in the algal biomass were a dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium sp. (40–50%), and a prasinophycean, Scourfieldia cordiformis (7%). The biomasses of Chlamydomonas spp. and Chrysococcus spp. reached their maxima a few days later and Cryptomonas sp. became most abundant at the end of the experiment. After the phytoplankton maximum, about one week from the beginning ofthe experiment, grazing of algae by phagotrophic protozoans and phosphate depletion led to a rapid decrease of algal biomass and the community became predominantly heterotrophic. In spite of a large variation in algal biomass and primary production, the biomass of bacteria remained of the same order of magnitude as in algae both before and after the algal maximum. Bacteria were mostly responsible for the plankton respiration, which also showed no dependence on primary production. Since exudation by phytoplankton was also low, the nutrition of bacterioplankton was probably mainly based on allochthonous dissolved organic matter rather than or primary production. Thus the production of bacteria was an additional food source for higher trophic levels along with phytoplankton. Because filter feeding zooplankton was absent in the experiment, protozoans were the only grazers utilizing algae and bacteria. Essentially all growth of bacteria was used by bacterivores.     

Role of atelomixis in replacement of phytoplankton assemblages in Dom Helvécio Lake, South-East Brazil

Scale and frequency of changes in a lake’s physical structure, light dynamics, and availability of nutrients are closely related to phytoplankton ecology. Since phytoplankton assemblages were first described, phytoplankton ecologists concluded that these assemblages provide insight into phytoplankton responses to environmental changes. Objectives of this study were to investigate ecology of phytoplankton during a complete hydrological cycle in the deepest natural lake in Brazil, Dom Helvécio, and to sort species into the list of assemblages, checking its accordance with environmental changes in a tropical system within the middle Rio Doce Lake district, South-East Brazil. Canonical Correspondence Analysis, t-test, Mann–Whitney U-test, and Kruskal–Wallis test were used to analyze climatological, environmental, and plankton data, which were obtained monthly in 2002. A new phytoplankton assemblage, N_A (atelomixis-dependent desmids), is suggested because atelomixis (robust movement of water occurring once a day) contributed to replacement of species in Dom Helvécio Lake. Stability of stratification, water chemistry, and composition of phytoplankton assemblages characterized two periods. The first period occurred in six rainy months (Jan–Mar and Oct–Dec) when the lake was stratified and phytoplankton was dominated by two assemblages: N_A and F. The second period occurred in six dry months (Apr–Sep) when the lake was nonstratified and phytoplankton was dominated by four assemblages: S2, X1, A, and L_O. Results suggest that phytoplankton in Dom Helvécio Lake was shaped by seasonal and daily changes of water temperature, even with its lower amplitude of variation within 2002 (El Niño year). These changes promoted water column stratification or mixing, reduced light, and increased nutrient availability. Temperature, therefore, is similarly important to phytoplankton ecology in tropical regions as it is in temperate ones. Sorting phytoplankton species into assemblages matched well with environmental changes and periods identified so it is also suggested that this can be further used as an appropriate tool to manage water quality when evaluating tropical lakes.     

Carbon flow in a small turbid man-made impoundment

A shallow turbid man-made impoundment was studied intensively for five years. The carbon (C) budget indicated a well balanced system, where phytoplankton productivity and respiratory losses accounted for the major inputs and outputs. The carbon content was dominated by dissolved organic carbon, followed by detritus > fish > phytoplankton > bacteria > zooplankton > zoobenthos.From an analysis of a matrix flow model, three dominant components of C-flow in the system were identified, i.e. dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), particulate organic carbon (POC) and fish. Phytoplankton and detritus were the important components of POC. The largest flow of C was through the largest pool, dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), whilst the second largest flow was through the fifth largest pool, the phytoplankton. Phytoplankton was very important in determining the structure of the system, and variations in phytoplankton primary productivity influenced the entire system. This also applied to the input of organic material from macrophytes, but not to variations in the inflow and outflow of water from the impoundment.The input of detrital material from a littoral macrophyte community also markedly influenced the system. DOC was identified as a carbon buffer in the system, and differential flow occurred through this component upon variations in phytoplankton productivity.     

The role of phosphorus on planktonic production of the Gironde plume waters in the Bay of Biscay

More and more studies emphasize the status of phosphorus (P)as the principal limiting nutrient of phytoplankton growth,especially in coastal waters under the influence of freshwaterdischarges. The purpose of the present paper is to investigatethe role of P on planktonic production in the waters influencedby the Gironde discharges; the Gironde being one of the twolargest rivers on the French Atlantic coast. The survey is basedon several cruises made in 1998 and 1999. Two different patternswere observed for waters with salinity below and above 34.5.For waters with salinity < 34.5, P was found to be the firstlimiting nutrient of winter and spring phytoplankton blooms,based on undetectable phosphate (< 20 nM), high NO₃ : PO₄ratios, typically > 100 : 1, short phosphate turnover time(1 to 2 h), high alkaline phosphatase activities (mean of 176nM h^-1 in late May 1999) and ultimately great increases of chlorophylla (Chl a) and primary production in phosphate-enriched samplesrelative to controls. This limitation could be partly explainedby the Gironde nutrient supplies, which were phosphate deficientcompared with the mineral nitrogen(N_min : PO₄ was > 40 withina salinity range 16–33). In summer, corresponding to theperiod of low influence of Gironde supplies (low runoff anda spreading effect of the plume), phytoplankton growth wouldbe controlled by both P and nitrogen (N), according to low nitrateand the major effect of combined P+N (NH₄) enrichment on Chla and primary production compared with the addition of N orP singly. In early October, after the first autumn gales, themixed layer was enriched with a sufficient supply of nutrientsto support exponential phytoplankton growth for 4 days in enclosures.The pattern was different for waters at the limit of the Girondeplume and Atlantic oceanic waters (within salinity range 34.5–35.4).P would not be the single limiting nutrient of winter bloomsand spring phytoplankton growth since low phosphate, and alsolow nitrate and silicate, availability were recorded and phosphateaddition alone had no effect on phytoplankton biomass and productionin bioassays. The early P limitation of winter blooms had consequencesfor the phytoplankton community structure in the Gironde plumewaters (salinity < 34.5). Whereas major cells of these bloomswere greater than 20 µm in size, phytoplankton growthin spring and autumn was dominated by 3–20 µm (e.g.53% of Chl a in late April 1999) and < 3 µm cells (e.g.29% of Chl a). The decreasing size of phytoplankton cells isemphasized by the severe competition between bacteria and algaefor phosphate, since bacteria dominated phosphate uptake inspring (e.g. 87% in late April, 77% in late May). Bacteria tendedto have greater affinity for phosphate and seemed also to beP limited at certain times in spring, according to results fromphosphate enrichment bioassays in late May 1999. The alternativemethod for phytoplankton to obtain P would be the use of thedissolved organic phosphorus pool by alkaline phosphatase activity.According to the movement of ³³P after initial labelling ofmicrobial populations and a subsequent cold chase, the majortransfer of P occurred from the bacterial to the dissolved fraction.We hypothesize that algae obtain part of its dissolved organicphosphorus from bacteria-originated organic phosphorus compounds.     

Phylogenetic Diversity and Specificity of Bacteria Closely Associated with Alexandrium spp. and Other Phytoplankton

While several studies have suggested that bacterium-phytoplankton interactions have the potential to dramatically influence harmful algal bloom dynamics, little is known about how bacteria and phytoplankton communities interact at the species composition level. The objective of the current study was to determine whether there are specific associations between diverse phytoplankton and the bacteria that co-occur with them. We determined the phylogenetic diversity of bacterial assemblages associated with 10 Alexandrium strains and representatives of the major taxonomic groups of phytoplankton in the Gulf of Maine. For this analysis we chose xenic phytoplankton cultures that (i) represented a broad taxonomic range, (ii) represented a broad geographic range for Alexandrium spp. isolates, (iii) grew under similar cultivation conditions, (iv) had a minimal length of time since the original isolation, and (v) had been isolated from a vegetative phytoplankton cell. 16S rRNA gene fragments of most Bacteria were amplified from DNA extracted from cultures and were analyzed by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and sequencing. A greater number of bacterial species were shared by different Alexandrium cultures, regardless of the geographic origin, than by Alexandrium species and nontoxic phytoplankton from the Gulf of Maine. In particular, members of the Roseobacter clade showed a higher degree of association with Alexandrium than with other bacterial groups, and many sequences matched sequences reported to be associated with other toxic dinoflagellates. These results provide evidence for specificity in bacterium-phytoplankton associations.     

Uncoupling of Bacterioplankton and Phytoplankton Production in Fresh Waters Is Affected by Inorganic Nutrient Limitation

Pelagic bacterial production is often positively correlated, or coupled, with primary production through utilization of autotrophically produced dissolved organic carbon. Recent studies indicate that inorganic N or P can directly limit both bacterial and phytoplanktonic growth. Our mesocosm experiments, with whole communities from mesotrophic Calder Lake, test whether this apparent bacterial-algal coupling may be the result of independent responses to limiting inorganic nutrients. In systems without N additions, numbers of bacteria but not phytoplankton increased 2- to 2.5-fold in response to P fertilization (0 to 2.0 μmol of P per liter); this resulted in uncoupled production patterns. In systems supplemented with 10 μmol of NH₄NO₃ per liter, P addition resulted in up to threefold increases in bacteria and two- to fivefold increases in total phytoplankton biomass (close coupling). P limitation of pelagic bacteria occurred independently of phytoplankton dynamics, and regressions between bacterial abundance and phytoplankton chlorophyll a were nonsignificant in all systems without added N. We describe a useful and simple coupling index which predicts that shifts in phytoplankton and bacterioplankton growth will be unrelated (Δ bacteria/Δ phytoplankton → either + ∞ or - ∞) in systems with inorganic N/P (molar) ratios of <~40. In systems with higher N/P ratios (>40), the coupling index will approach 1.0 and close coupling between bacteria and phytoplankton is predicted to occur.     

Relationships between picophytoplankton and environmental variables in lakes along a gradient of water colour and nutrient content

SUMMARY 1. Biomass and production of picophytoplankton, phytoplankton and heterotrophic bacterioplankton were measured in seven lakes, exhibiting a broad range in water colour because of humic substances. The aim of the study was to identify environmental variables explaining the absolute and relative importance of picophytoplankton. In addition, two dystrophic lakes were fertilised with inorganic phosphorus and nitrogen, to test eventual nutrient limitation of picophytoplankton in these systems.
2. Picophytoplankton biomass and production were highest in lakes with low concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and DOC proved the factor explaining most variation in picophytoplankton biomass and production. The relationship between picophytoplankton and lake trophy was negative, most likely because much P was bound in humic complexes. Picophytoplankton biomass decreased after the additions of P and N.
3. Compared with heterotrophic bacterioplankton, picophytoplankton were most successful at the clearwater end of the lake water colour gradient. Phytoplankton dominated over heterotrophic bacteria in the clearwater systems possibly because heterotrophic bacteria in such lakes are dependent on organic carbon produced by phytoplankton.
4. Compared with other phytoplankton, picophytoplankton did best at intermediate DOC concentrations; flagellates dominated in the humic lakes and large autotrophic phytoplankton in the clearwater lakes.
5. Picophytoplankton were not better competitors than large phytoplankton in situations when heterotrophic bacteria had access to a non-algal carbon source. Neither did their small size lead to picophytoplankton dominance over large phytoplankton in the clearwater lakes. Possible reasons include the ability of larger phytoplankton to float or swim to reduce sedimentation losses and to acquire nutrients by phagotrophy.     

Size‐spectrum based differential response of phytoplankton to nutrient and iron‐organic matter combinations in microcosm experiments in a Chilean Patagonian Fjord

The Patagonian fjords have been recognized as a major region of relatively high primary productivity systems during spring–summer bloom periods, where iron‐organic matter forms may be essential complexes involved in key growth processes connected to the carbon and nitrogen cycles. We used two dissolved organic matter (DOM) types, marine polysaccharide and siderophore, as a model to understand how they affect the bioavailability of Fe to phytoplankton and bacteria and to assess their ecological role in fjord systems. A 10‐day microcosm study was performed in the Comau Fjord during summer conditions (March 2012). Pico‐, nano‐, and microphytoplankton abundance, total chlorophyll‐a and bacteria abundance, and bacterial secondary production estimates were analyzed in five treatments: (i) control (no additions), (ii) only nutrients (NUT: PO₄, NO₃, Si), (iii) nutrients + Fe(II), (iv) polysaccharide (natural diatoms extracted: 1–3 beta Glucan), and (v) Hexandentate Desferroxiamine B (DFB, siderophore). Our results showed that while DFB reduced Fe bioavailability for almost all phytoplankton assemblages in the fjord, polysaccharide did not have effects on the iron bioavailability. At Nutrients + Fe and Polysaccharide treatments, chlorophyll‐a concentration abruptly increased from 0.9 to 20 mg m^?3 during the first 4–6 days of the experimental period. Remarkably, at the Nutrients + Fe treatment, the development of the bloom was accompanied by markedly high abundances of Synechococcus, picoeukaryotes, and autotrophic nanoflagellates within the first 4 days of the experiment. Our study indicated that small plankton (phytoplankton <20 μm and bacteria) were the first to respond to dissolved Nutrients + Fe compared to large sized micro‐phytoplankton cells (>20 μm). This could be at least partially attributed to biological utilization of Fe (2 to 3 nM) by <20 μm phytoplankton and bacteria through the interaction with organic ligands released by bacteria that eventually could increase solubility of the Fe dissolved fraction thus having a positive effect on the small‐sized phytoplankton community.     

Functional Groups and Activities of Bacteria in a Highly Acidic Volcanic Mountain Stream and Lake in Patagonia,Argentina

Acidic volcanic waters are naturally occurring extreme habitats that are subject of worldwide geochemical research but have been little investigated with respect to their biology. To fill this gap, the microbial ecology of a volcanic acidic river (pH approximately equal to 0-1.6), Rio Agrio, and the recipient lake Caviahue in Patagonia, Argentina, was studied. Water and sediment samples were investigated for Fe(II), Fe(III), methane, bacterial abundances, biomass, and activities (oxygen consumption, iron oxidation and reduction). The extremely acidic river showed a strong gradient of microbial life with increasing values downstream and few signs of life near the source. Only sulfide-oxidizing and fermentative bacteria could be cultured from the upper part of Rio Agrio. However, in the lower part of the system, microbial biomass and oxygen penetration and consumption in the sediment were comparable to non-extreme aquatic habitats. To characterize similarities and differences of chemically similar natural and man-made acidic waters, our findings were compared to those from acidic mining lakes in Germany. In the lower part of the river and the lake, numbers of iron and sulfur bacteria and total biomass in sediments were comparable to those known from acidic mining lakes. Bacterial abundance in water samples was also very similar for both types of acidic water (around 10(5) mL(-1)). In contrast, Fe(II) oxidation and Fe(III) reduction potentials appeared to be lower despite higher biogenic oxygen consumption and higher photosynthetic activity at the sediment-water interface. Surprisingly, methanogenesis was detected in the presence of high sulfate concentrations in the profundal sediment of Lake Caviahue. In addition to supplementing microbiological knowledge on acidic volcanic waters, our study provides a new view of these extreme sites in the general context of aquatic habitats.