The role of gsc and BMP-4 in dorsal-ventral patterning of the marginal zone in Xenopus: a loss-of-function study using antisense RNA.

The dorsal-specific homeobox gene goosecoid (gsc) and the bone morphogenetic protein 4 gene (BMP-4) are expressed in complementary regions of the Xenopus gastrula. Injection of gsc mRNA dorsalizes ventral mesodermal tissue and can induce axis formation in normal and UV-ventralized embryos. On the other hand, BMP-4 mRNA injection, which has a strong ventralizing effect on whole embryos, has been implicated in ventralization by UV, and can rescue tail structures in embryos dorsalized by LiCl. The above-mentioned putative roles for BMP-4 and gsc are based on gain-of-function experiments. In order to determine the in vivo role of these two genes in the patterning of the Xenopus mesoderm during gastrulation, partial loss-of-function experiments were performed using antisense RNA injections. Using marker genes that are expressed early in gastrulation, we show that antisense gsc RNA has a ventralizing effect on embryos, whereas antisense BMP-4 RNA dorsalizes mesodermal tissue. These loss-of-function studies also show a requirement for gsc and BMP-4 in the dorsalization induced by LiCl and in the ventralization generated by UV irradiation, respectively. Thus, both gain- and loss-of-function results for gsc and BMP-4 support the view that these two genes are necessary components of the dorsal and ventral patterning pathways in Xenopus embryos.     

A novel gene, BENI is required for the convergent extension during Xenopus laevis gastrulation

Activin-like signaling plays an important role in early embryogenesis. Activin A, a TGF-beta family protein, induces mesodermal/endodermal tissues in animal cap assays. In a screen for genes expressed early after treatment with activin A, we isolated a novel gene, denoted as BENI (Brachyury Expression Nuclear Inhibitor). The BENI protein has a conserved domain at the N-terminus that contains a nuclear localization signal (NLS), and two other NLSs in the C-terminal domain. BENI mRNA was localized to the animal hemisphere at the gastrula stages and to ectoderm except for neural regions at stage 17; expression persisted until the tadpole stage. The overexpression of BENI caused gastrulation defects and inhibition of elongation of activin-treated animal caps with reduction of Xbra expression. Moreover, whole-mount in situ hybridization revealed reduced expression of Xbra in BENI mRNA-injected regions of gastrula embryos. Functional knockdown of BENI using an antisense morpholino oligonucleotide also resulted in an abnormal phenotype of embryos curling to the dorsal side, and excessive elongation of activin-treated animal caps without altered expression of mesodermal markers. These results suggested that BENI expression is regulated by activin-like signaling, and that this regulation is crucial for Xbra expression.     

Low-molecular-weight protein tyrosine phosphatase is a positive component of the fibroblast growth factor receptor signaling pathway

Low-molecular-weight protein tyrosine phosphatase (LMW-PTP) has been implicated in the regulation of cell growth and actin rearrangement mediated by several receptor tyrosine kinases, including platelet-derived growth factor and epidermal growth factor. Here we identify the Xenopus laevis homolog of LMW-PTP1 (XLPTP1) as an additional positive regulator in the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling pathway during Xenopus development. XLPTP1 has an expression pattern that displays substantial overlap with FGF receptor 1 (FGFR1) during Xenopus development. Using morpholino antisense technology, we show that inhibition of endogenous XLPTP1 expression dramatically restricts anterior and posterior structure development and inhibits mesoderm formation. In ectodermal explants, loss of XLPTP1 expression dramatically blocks the induction of the early mesoderm gene, Xbrachyury (Xbra), by FGF and partially blocks Xbra induction by Activin. Moreover, FGF-induced activation of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase is also inhibited by XLPTP1 morpholino antisense oligonucleotides; however, introduction of RNA encoding XLPTP1 is able to rescue morphological and biochemical effects of antisense inhibition. Inhibition of FGF-induced MAP kinase activity due to loss of XLPTP1 is also rescued by an active Ras, implying that XLPTP1 may act upstream of or parallel to Ras. Finally, XLPTP1 physically associates only with an activated FGFR1, and this interaction requires the presence of SNT1/FRS-2 (FGFR substrate 2). Although LMW-PTP1 has been shown to participate in other receptor systems, the data presented here also reveal XLPTP1 as a new and important component of the FGF signaling pathway.     

Expression of a Xenopus homolog of Brachyury (T) is an immediate-early response to mesoderm induction.

The Brachyury (T) gene is required for mesoderm formation in the mouse. In this paper we describe the cloning and expression of a Xenopus homolog of Brachyury, Xbra. As with Brachyury in the mouse, Xbra is expressed in presumptive mesodermal cells around the blastopore, and then in the notochord. We show that expression of Xbra occurs as a result of mesoderm induction in Xenopus, both in response to the natural signal and in response to the mesoderm-inducing factors activin A and basic FGF. Expression of Xbra in response to these factors is rapid, and will occur in dispersed cells and in the presence of a protein synthesis inhibitor, indicating that this is an "immediate-early" response to mesoderm induction.     

Neurotrophin receptor homolog (NRH1) proteins regulate mesoderm formation and apoptosis during early Xenopus development

Recent experiments suggest that Xenopus Neurotrophin Receptor Homolog 1 (NRH1) proteins act through the planar cell polarity pathway to regulate convergent extension movements during gastrulation and neurulation. We show in this paper that NRH1 proteins are also required for the proper expression of mesodermally expressed genes such as Xbra and Chordin, and to a lesser extent, of Xwnt11. Loss of NRH1 function is followed, during gastrula and neurula stages, by a dramatic increase in apoptosis. Apoptosis is delayed by injection of Xbra RNA, suggesting that cell death is a consequence, at least in part, of the down-regulation of this gene, and it is also delayed by expression of activated forms of Rho, Rac and Cdc42. These small GTPases have previously been implicated in the planar cell polarity pathway in Xenopus and, in other systems, in the regulation of apoptosis. We conclude that the effects of NRH1 proteins include the regulation of mesodermal gene expression and that the disruption of gastrulation that is caused by their loss of function is a consequence of the down-regulation of Xbra and other genes, in addition to direct interference with the planar cell polarity pathway. The apoptosis observed in embryos lacking NRH1 function is not an indirect consequence of the disruption of gastrulation, and indeed it may contribute to the observed morphological defects.     

RNA interference for the organizer-specific gene Xlim-1 in Xenopus embryos

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) interferes with gene expression in various species, a phenomenon known as RNA interference (RNAi). We show here that RNAi is also effective in modifying gene expression in Xenopus embryos. First, expression of an exogenous luciferase gene as a reporter in embryos was reduced by coinjection with dsRNA corresponding to the luciferase gene. Next, injection of dsRNA for Xlim-1, a homeobox gene suggested to be involved in Spemann organizer functions, reduced the endogenous level of Xlim-1 mRNA and produced embryos with reduced eyes or anterior truncation at high efficiency. In addition, injection of an antisense expression construct of Xlim-1 elicited phenotypes very similar to those of Xlim-1 dsRNA-injected embryos. These results indicate the effectiveness of RNAi for loss of function studies in Xenopus embryos, and the importance of Xlim-1 in head formation.     

VegT, eFGF and Xbra cause overall posteriorization while Xwnt8 causes eye-level restricted posteriorization in synergy with chordin in early Xenopus development

We examined several candidate posterior/mesodermal inducing molecules using permanent blastula-type embryos (PBEs) as an assay system. Candidate molecules were injected individually or in combination with the organizer factor chordin mRNA. Injection of chordin alone resulted in a white hemispherical neural tissue surrounded by a large circular cement gland, together with anterior neural gene expression and thus the development of the anterior-most parts of the embryo, without mesodermal tissues. When VegT, eFGF or Xbra mRNAs were injected into a different blastomere of the chordin -injected PBEs, the embryos elongated and formed eye, muscle and pigment cells, and expressed mesodermal and posterior neural genes. These embryos formed the full spectrum of the anteroposterior embryonic axis. In contrast, injection of CSKA-Xwnt8 DNA into PBEs injected with chordin resulted in eye formation and expression of En2 , a midbrain/hindbrain marker, and Xnot , a notochord marker, but neither elongation, muscle formation nor more posterior gene expression. Injection of chordin and posteriorizing molecules into the same cell did not result in elongation of the embryo. Thus, by using PBEs as the host test system we show that (i) overall anteroposterior neural development, mesoderm (muscle) formation, together with embryo elongation can occur through the synergistic effect(s) of the organizer molecule chordin , and each of the 'overall posteriorizing molecules' eFGF , VegT and Xbra ; (ii) Xwnt8-mediated posteriorization is restricted to the eye level and is independent of mesoderm formation; and (iii) proper anteroposterior patterning requires a separation of the dorsalizing and posteriorizing gene expression domains.     

Xantivin suppresses the activity of EGF-CFC genes to regulate nodal signaling

Lefty, antivin and related genes act in a feedback inhibition mechanism for nodal signaling at a number of stages of vertebrate embryogenesis. To analyze the function of the feedback inhibitor of nodal signaling, Xantivin in Xenopus embryos, we designed a morpholino antisense oligonucleotide (XatvMO) for this gene. XatvMO caused the expansion of mesodermal tissue and head defects. XatvMO-injected gastrulae showed up-regulated expression of the mesodermal markers Xbra, Xwnt8, Xnot, and Chordin, suggesting expansion of the trunk-tail organizer. As expected, depletion of Xantivin also up-regulated nodal signaling as confirmed by the enhanced ectopic expression of Xantivin mRNA, a known target gene of nodal signaling. Furthermore, we investigated the relationship between Xantivin and the EGF-CFC gene FRL-1, which is a component of the nodal receptor. In animal cap assays, FRL-1 could not induce expression of nodal-responsive genes, but could up-regulate expression of these genes when FRL-1 was coinjected with a low dose of Xnr1; coinjection of Xantivin suppressed this up-regulation by FRL-1. We also found that Xantivin can rescue the caudalized phenotype induced by overexpression of FRL-1. Co-immunoprecipitation assays showed that Xantivin interacted with the EGF-CFC proteins, FRL-1 and cripto. Taken together, these results suggest that Xantivin opposes the activity of EGF-CFC genes and thereby antagonizes nodal signaling.     

The ARID domain protein dril1 is necessary for TGF(beta) signaling in Xenopus embryos

ARID domain proteins are members of a highly conserved family involved in chromatin remodeling and cell-fate determination. Dril1 is the founding member of the ARID family and is involved in developmental processes in both Drosophila and Caenorhabditis elegans. We describe the first embryological characterization of this gene in chordates. Dril1 mRNA expression is spatiotemporally regulated and is detected in the involuting mesoderm during gastrulation. Inhibition of dril1 by either a morpholino or an engrailed repressor-dril1 DNA binding domain fusion construct inhibits gastrulation and perturbs induction of the zygotic mesodermal marker Xbra and the organizer markers chordin, noggin, and Xlim1. Xenopus tropicalis dril1 morphants also exhibit impaired gastrulation and axial deficiencies, which can be rescued by coinjection of Xenopus laevis dril1 mRNA. Loss of dril1 inhibits the response of animal caps to activin and secondary axis induction by smad2. Dril1 depletion in animal caps prevents both the smad2-mediated induction of dorsal mesodermal and endodermal markers and the induction of ventral mesoderm by smad1. Mesoderm induction by eFGF is uninhibited in dril1 morphant caps, reflecting pathway specificity for dril1. These experiments identify dril1 as a novel regulator of TGF(beta) signaling and a vital component of mesodermal patterning and embryonic morphogenesis.