白念珠菌的二型性转换：从共生菌到致病菌

白念珠菌Candida albicans是人体内的良性共生真菌,存在于宿主的口腔、表皮、胃肠道及阴道等处,在免疫能力低下的人群中可能引起严重的疾病。一般以二倍体的形式存在,且能在酵母、假菌丝和菌丝的状态之间转换。菌丝状态促进了白念珠菌的侵染能力,同时也可以使白念珠菌逃逸宿主的免疫攻击,在其对宿主的感染途径中起到了重要的作用。本综述将阐述白念珠菌菌丝形成的调控机制、菌丝的发育模式以及菌丝形态对宿主免疫系统的影响,并且简要介绍念珠菌属中热带念珠菌和耳念珠菌菌丝发育方面的相关研究。     

白念珠菌Ras/cAMP/P KA途径研究进展

白念珠菌引起的真菌感染严重威胁着人类健康。Ras/cAMP/PKA途径在白念珠菌菌丝发育、生物被膜形成、有性生殖以及耐药性中起着重要的调控作用,该通路由GTPases(Ras1和Ras2)、腺苷环化酶(Cyr1)、cAMP水解酶(Pde1和Pde2)以及PKA激酶(包括催化亚基Tpk1和Tpk2,调节亚基Bcy1)构成。环境因子通过Ras/cAMP/PKA途径调控下游转录因子,进而调节白念珠菌多种生物学行为。文中综述了近年来白念珠菌Ras/cAMP/PKA信号通路感应胞外环境因子和调控细胞行为等方面的研究进展。     

白念珠菌CaPPEl的克隆及其在酿酒酵母形态发生中的功能研究

白念珠菌的致病性与其形态转变相关,白念珠菌的形态转换受各种外界信号和细胞内信号转导途径的调控。转录因子Flo8在酿酒酵母形态发生中起重要作用,我们将白念珠菌基因组文库导入flo8缺失株中,筛选能够校正flo8缺失株侵入生长缺陷的基因,分离得到一个与酿酒酵母蛋白磷酸酯酶甲基酯酶PPEl同源的基因,命名为CaPPEl。CaPPEl的基因编码区全长1083bp,推测编码一个361氨基酸的蛋白。在单倍体酿酒酵母中,CaPPEl基因的表达可以部分回复flo8缺失株的侵入生长缺陷,但是在MAPK途径缺失株中不能进行侵入生长。在双倍体酿酒酵母中,CaPPEl基因的表达可以部分激活MAPK途径成员缺失株的菌丝生长缺陷,但却只能在flo8缺失株中产生微弱的激活作用。结果表明CaPpel在酿酒酵母的假菌丝生长和侵入生长中参与的信号转导途径不同。     

白念珠菌肌醇多磷酸激酶Kcs1的功能

【目的】鉴定白念珠菌肌醇多磷酸激酶Kcs1蛋白,并探索Kcs1在该病原菌细胞自噬、菌丝发育及致病过程中的功能。【方法】采用二步PCR介导的同源重组方法,构建白念珠菌KCS1基因缺失菌株kcs1Δ/Δ及回补菌株KCS1c;采用氮饥饿敏感性测定及GFP-Atg8自噬报告系统,测定KCS1缺失对白念珠菌自噬过程的影响;采用菌丝诱导培养,测定KCS1缺失对白念珠菌菌丝发育能力的影响;采用巨噬细胞模型及小鼠系统性感染模型,分析KCS1缺失对白念珠菌感染宿主能力的影响。【结果】KCS1缺失造成白念珠菌氮饥饿耐受能力降低,氮饥饿条件下自噬相关蛋白Atg8的降解及转运水平下降,菌丝发育变缓,对巨噬细胞耐受及损伤能力减弱,但不影响菌株的小鼠系统性感染能力。【结论】白念珠菌肌醇多磷酸激酶Kcs1在细胞自噬、菌丝发育、与巨噬细胞相互作用等方面发挥重要作用。     

白念珠菌CaPPE1的克隆及其在酿酒酵母形态发生中的功能研究

白念珠菌的致病性与其形态转变相关,白念珠菌的形态转换受各种外界信号和细胞内信号转导途径的调控.转录因子Flo8在酿酒酵母形态发生中起重要作用,我们将白念珠菌基因组文库导入flo8缺失株中,筛选能够校正flo8缺失株侵入生长缺陷的基因,分离得到一个与酿酒酵母蛋白磷酸酯酶甲基酯酶PPE1同源的基因,命名为CaPPE1.CaPPE1的基因编码区全长1083bp,推测编码一个361氨基酸的蛋白.在单倍体酿酒酵母中,CaPPE1基因的表达可以部分回复flo8缺失株的侵入生长缺陷,但是在MAPK途径缺失株中不能进行侵入生长.在双倍体酿酒酵母中,CaPPE1基因的表达可以部分激活MAPK途径成员缺失株的菌丝生长缺陷,但却只能在flo8缺失株中产生微弱的激活作用.结果表明CaPpe1在酿酒酵母的假菌丝生长和侵入生长中参与的信号转导途径不同.     

影响白念珠菌表型的信号通路及其转录因子研究进展

白念珠菌是最常见的人类条件致病性真菌。白念珠菌在接受环境刺激信息后,能通过多种信号转导途径使菌体发生形态、毒力等各种表型转换,从而适应生长环境,易于在宿主体内潜伏或致病。该文对白念珠菌表型转换信号通路中主要转录因子的最新研究进展进行了概述,重点介绍介导白念珠菌形态转换和毒力等表型的信号转导主要通路:cAMP-PKA通路和MAPK通路,这些通路的终点都是相关转录因子,如Efg1、Cph1。转录因子能与基因启动子结合,调控白念珠菌相应基因的转录,从而促进或抑制信号的传达,影响白念珠菌的增殖、形态转变、致病力等。可为相关研究工作者进一步了解白念珠菌表型转换的调节机制提供参考。     

白念珠菌菌丝转录活化因子协同作用的研究进展

从酵母转变为菌丝来适应不同的环境的能力是白念珠菌的特性之一,而菌丝体是其侵入宿主细胞引起机体全身性感染所必需的重要致病因素之一。白念珠菌这种重要的形态转换受到多种菌丝相关基因的调控。本文主要综述促有丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(MAPK)途径的转录活化因子Cph1p和cAMP蛋白激酶A(cAMP/PKA)调节途径中的转录活化因子Efg1p对菌丝形态转换的影响,以及两者与调节白念珠菌毒力的转录活化因子TEA/ATTS家族中的Tec1p对于分泌型天冬氨酸蛋白酶家族(Secreted aspartyl proteinases,SAPs)中SAP5的协同调节作用,以对可能存在于不同的菌丝转录活化因子之间对菌丝形态转换调控的协同作用进行初步探讨。     

白念珠菌致病性研究进展

白念珠菌是一种重要的条件致病菌,多在体表及黏膜宿主共栖生存,可引起皮肤黏膜及内脏的广泛感染。白念珠菌是单细胞假菌丝酵母菌,形态上具有双相性,即菌丝相和孢子相。其中菌丝相更易黏附和入侵宿主组织,是该菌在体内的主要致病形式。白念珠菌的致病机制与多种因素如黏附、芽管、水解酶、生物膜、群体感应等有关。该文综述了白念珠菌致病机制的研究新进展。     

白念珠菌双形态性的分子调节机制

白念珠菌具有双形态性,即在一定条件下相互转换为酵母相和菌丝相。调节双形态性的主要信号通路有Cph1调节的MAPK途径,Efg1调节的c AMP／PKA途径,Tup1介导的抑制途径,Rim101调节的pH反应通路等。这些通路控制着菌丝特异基因的表达,许多菌丝特异基因编码白念珠菌的毒力因子,因此菌丝相的致病性更强。     

白色念珠菌CaBEM1基因的克隆及其在酿酒酵母丝状生长中的作用

白色念珠菌在不同的生长条件下能发生显著的形态变化 ,这种变化由多种调控因子与信号转导途径所调控。酿酒酵母的G1期细胞周期蛋白Cln1和Cln2参与其形态发生 ,cln1/cln1、cln2 /cln2双缺失株不能形成菌丝。把白色念珠菌基因组文库导入cln1/cln1、cln2 /cln2缺失株 ,筛选能校正菌丝形成缺陷的基因 ,分离得到白色念珠菌中的CaBEM 1基因。从核苷酸序列推导 ,CaBEM1编码一种 6 32个氨基酸的蛋白质 ,氨基酸序列分析表明在其N端有 2个SH3结构域 ,中部有 1个PX结构域 ,C端有 1个PB1结构域 ;CaBem1的氨基酸序列与酿酒酵母的Bem1同源性达 38% ,与裂殖酵母的Scd2同源性达 32 %。在酿酒酵母的缺失株中异源表达CaBEM1,能够部分校正它们在氮源缺乏条件下的菌丝形成缺陷。这种菌丝形成的校正作用绕过MAPK途径和cAMP/PKA途径 ,表明CaBem1在菌丝形成中的作用可能位于这两条信号转导途径的下游     

The metabolic basis of Candida albicans morphogenesis and quorum sensing

Candida albicans is a polymorphic fungus that has the ability to rapidly switch between yeast and filamentous forms. The morphological transition appears to be a critical virulence factor of this fungus. Recent studies have elucidated the signal transduction pathways and quorum sensing molecules that affect the morphological transition of C. albicans. The metabolic mechanisms that recognize, and respond to, such signaling molecules and promote the morphological changes at a system level, however, remain unknown. Here we review the metabolic basis of C. albicans morphogenesis and we discuss the role of primary metabolic pathways and quorum sensing molecules in the morphogenetic process. We have reconstructed, in silico, the central carbon metabolism and sterol biosynthesis of C. albicans based on its genome sequence, highlighting the metabolic pathways associated with the dimorphic transition and virulence as well as pathways involved in the biosynthesis of important quorum sensing molecules.     

Identification of salivary components that induce transition of hyphae to yeast in Candida albicans

Candida albicans , the major human fungal pathogen, undergoes a reversible morphological transition from single yeast cells to pseudohyphae and hyphae filaments. The hyphae form is considered the most invasive form of the fungus. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of saliva on hyphae growth of C. albicans. Candida albicans hyphae were inoculated in Roswell Park Memorial Institute medium with whole saliva, parotid saliva or buffer mimicking the saliva ion composition, and cultured for 18 h at 37 °C under aerobic conditions with 5% CO₂. Whole saliva and parotid saliva induced transition to yeast growth, whereas the culture with buffer remained in the hyphae form. Parotid saliva was fractionated on a reverse-phase C8 column and each fraction was tested for inducing transition to yeast growth. By immunoblotting, the salivary component in the active fraction was identified as statherin, a phosphoprotein of 43 amino acids that has been implicated in remineralization of the teeth. Synthetically made statherin induced transition of hyphae to yeast. By deletion of five amino acids at the negatively charged N-terminal site (DpSpSEE), yeast-inducing activity and binding to C. albicans were increased. In conclusion, statherin induces transition to yeast of C. albicans hyphae and may thus contribute to the oral defense against candidiasis.     

Proteomic analysis of Candida albicans yeast and hyphal cell wall and associated proteins

Candida albicans is an important human pathogen that causes systemic infections, predominantly among populations with weakened immune systems. The morphological transition from the yeast to the hyphal state is one of the key factors in C. albicans pathogenesis. Owing to their location at the host-pathogen interface, the cell wall and associated proteins are of interest, especially with respect to the yeast to hyphal transition. This study entailed the proteomic analysis of differentially regulated proteins involved in this transition. The protein profiles of C. albicans DTT/SDS-extractible proteins and the cyanogen bromide (CNBr)/trypsin-extractable proteins of a cell wall-enriched fraction from yeast and hyphae were compared. In total, 107 spots were identified from the DTT/SDS-extractible cell wall-enriched fraction, corresponding to 82 unique proteins. Of these DTT/SDS-extractible proteins, 14 proteins were upregulated and 10 were downregulated in response to hyphal induction. Approximately 6-9% of total cell wall-protein-enriched fraction was found to be resistant to DTT/SDS extraction. Analysis of the DTT/SDS-resistant fraction using a CNBr/trypsin extraction resulted in the identification of 29 proteins. Of these, 17 were identified only in the hyphae, four were identified only in the yeast, and eight were identified in both the yeast and hyphae.     

Ras Signaling Is Required for Serum-Induced Hyphal Differentiation in Candida albicans

Serum induces Candida albicans to make a rapid morphological change from the yeast cell form to hyphae. Contrary to the previous reports, we found that serum albumin does not play a critical role in this morphological change. Instead, a filtrate (molecular mass, <1 kDa) devoid of serum albumin induces hyphae. To study genes controlling this response, we have isolated the RAS1 gene from C. albicans by complementation. The Candida Ras1 protein, like Ras1 and Ras2 of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, has a long C-terminal extension. Although RAS1 appears to be the only RAS gene present in the C. albicans genome, strains homozygous for a deletion of RAS1 (ras1-2/ras1-3) are viable. The Candida ras1-2/ras1-3 mutant fails to form germ tubes and hyphae in response to serum or to a serum filtrate but does form pseudohyphae. Moreover, strains expressing the dominant active RAS1(V13) allele manifest enhanced hyphal growth, whereas those expressing a dominant negative RAS1(A16) allele show reduced hyphal growth. These data show that low-molecular-weight molecules in serum induce hyphal differentiation in C. albicans through a Ras-mediated signal transduction pathway.     

Cyclin Cln3p links G1 progression to hyphal and pseudohyphal development in Candida albicans

G1 cyclins coordinate environmental conditions with growth and differentiation in many organisms. In the pathogen Candida albicans, differentiation of hyphae is induced by environmental cues but in a cell cycle-independent manner. Intriguingly, repressing the G1 cyclin Cln3p under yeast growth conditions caused yeast cells to arrest in G1, increase in size, and then develop into hyphae and pseudohyphae, which subsequently resumed the cell cycle. Differentiation was dependent on Efg1p, Cph1p, and Ras1p, but absence of Ras1p was also synthetically lethal with repression of CLN3. In contrast, repressing CLN3 in environment-induced hyphae did not inhibit growth or the cell cycle, suggesting that yeast and hyphal cell cycles may be regulated differently. Therefore, absence of a G1 cyclin can activate developmental pathways in C. albicans and uncouple differentiation from the normal environmental controls. The data suggest that the G1 phase of the cell cycle may therefore play a critical role in regulating hyphal and pseudohyphal development in C. albicans.     

Lysophosphatidylcholine derived from deer antler extract suppresses hyphal transition in Candida albicans through MAP kinase pathway

A family of 2-lysophosphatidylcholines (lyso-PCs) was isolated from deer antler extract, guided exclusively by hyphal transition inhibitory activity in Candida albicans. Structural determination of the isolated lyso-PCs by spectroscopic methods, including infrared spectroscopy, 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 13C NMR, 2D correlation spectroscopy NMR, fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry and tandem mass spectrometry, confirmed that the natural products were composed of at least four different lyso-PCs varying in fatty acid moiety at the sn-1 position of the glycerol backbone. The major lyso-PCs were confirmed as 1-stearoyl-, 1-oleoyl-, 1-linoleoyl- and 1-palmitoyl-2-lyso-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylcholines. Lyso-PC specifically suppressed the morphogenic transition from yeast to hyphae in C. albicans, without affecting the growth of either yeast or hyphae. Lyso-PC exerted hyphal transition that suppressed activity in the broad spectrum of the Candida species, such as C. albicans, Candida krusei, Candida guilliermondii and Candida parapsilosis. Northern analysis indicated that the suppression was mediated through the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway.     

A G1 Cyclin Is Necessary for Maintenance of Filamentous Growth in Candida albicans

Candida albicans undergoes a dramatic morphological transition in response to various growth conditions. This ability to switch from a yeast form to a hyphal form is required for its pathogenicity. The intractability of Candida to traditional genetic approaches has hampered the study of the molecular mechanism governing this developmental switch. Our approach is to use the more genetically tractable yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to yield clues about the molecular control of filamentation for further studies in Candida. G1 cyclins Cln1 and Cln2 have been implicated in the control of morphogenesis in S. cerevisiae. We show that C. albicans CLN1 (CaCLN1) has the same cell cycle-specific expression pattern as CLN1 and CLN2 of S. cerevisiae. To investigate whether G1 cyclins are similarly involved in the regulation of cell morphogenesis during the yeast-to-hypha transition of C. albicans, we mutated CaCLN1. Cacln1/Cacln1 cells were found to be slower than wild-type cells in cell cycle progression. The Cacln1/Cacln1 mutants were also defective in hyphal colony formation on several solid media. Furthermore, while mutant strains developed germ tubes under several hypha-inducing conditions, they were unable to maintain the hyphal growth mode in a synthetic hypha-inducing liquid medium and were deficient in the expression of hypha-specific genes in this medium. Our results suggest that CaCln1 may coordinately regulate hyphal development with signal transduction pathways in response to various environmental cues.     

Lower filamentation rates of Candida dubliniensis contribute to its lower virulence in comparison with Candida albicans

Candida albicans and C. dubliniensis are very closely related yeast species. In this study, we have conducted a thorough comparison of the ability of the two species to produce hyphae and their virulence in two infection models. Under all induction conditions tested C. albicans consistently produced hyphae more efficiently than C. dubliniensis. In the oral reconstituted human epithelial model, C. dubliniensis isolates grew exclusively in the yeast form, while the C. albicans strains produced abundant hyphae that invaded and caused significant damage to the epithelial tissue. In the oral-intragastric infant mouse infection model, C. dubliniensis strains were more rapidly cleared from the gastrointestinal tract than C. albicans. Immunosuppression of Candida-infected mice caused dissemination to internal organs by both species, but C. albicans was found to be far more effective at dissemination than C. dubliniensis. These data suggest that a major reason for the comparatively low virulence of C. dubliniensis is its lower capacity to produce hyphae.     

Modulation of morphogenesis in Candida albicans by various small molecules

The pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, a member of the mucosal microbiota, is responsible for a large spectrum of infections, ranging from benign thrush and vulvovaginitis in both healthy and immunocompromised individuals to severe, life-threatening infections in immunocompromised patients. A striking feature of C. albicans is its ability to grow as budding yeast and as filamentous forms, including hyphae and pseudohyphae. The yeast-to-hypha transition contributes to the overall virulence of C. albicans and may even constitute a target for the development of antifungal drugs. Indeed, impairing morphogenesis in C. albicans has been shown to be a means to treat candidiasis. Additionally, a large number of small molecules such as farnesol, fatty acids, rapamycin, geldanamycin, histone deacetylase inhibitors, and cell cycle inhibitors have been reported to modulate the yeast-to-hypha transition in C. albicans. In this minireview, we take a look at molecules that modulate morphogenesis in this pathogenic yeast. When possible, we address experimental findings regarding their mechanisms of action and their therapeutic potential. We discuss whether or not modulating morphogenesis constitutes a strategy to treat Candida infections.