Fertility assessment of cheetah males with poor quality semen

Reports on semen quality of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) indicate that high percentages of abnormal morphs and sperm concentrations, 10 times lower than in domestic cats, are found in all populations. These characteristics are believed to result from unusual genetic homozygosity, hypothesized to have been caused by passage of the species through one or more population bottlenecks during its recent history. In a sample of 12 captive-living males, we found semen characteristics to be equal or inferior to those previously reported for males living in other captive facilities. Ten of these males (83.3%) nevertheless produced pregnancies. Seventeen of 19 pregnancies resulted from matings during a single estrus. This examination of the reproductive potential of males having comparatively inferior ejaculate quality supports the suggestion that husbandry programs may be more significant than physiological impairment in causing the low birth rates of captive cheetahs. These results also have implications for ascertaining fertility thresholds in mammalian populations undergoing increased levels of inbreeding as a consequence of habitat deterioration. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Habitat selection and feeding ecology of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) in thicket vegetation: is the cheetah a savanna specialist?

Habitat selection and feeding ecology of a reintroduced population of cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus were studied in a 16 000 ha game reserve in the Eastern Cape Province (South Africa). Seventy per cent of the reserve is characterized by very dense thicket vegetation (valley bushveld) and the remainder is open and savanna-like. The results illustrated a strong effect of sex and group size on the behaviour of cheetahs. The coalition (three adult males) killed significantly larger animals (55% of kills weighed more than 65 kg) than single female cheetahs (less than 2% of kills weighed more than 65 kg). Female cheetahs showed temporal and spatial avoidance of lions by hunting at dawn and dusk and positioning their home ranges [95% utilization distribution (UDs)] significantly farther from the pride of lions than did the coalition. The coalition hunted earlier and later than female cheetahs, and 46% of their kills were made in darkness. In addition, their home range overlapped that of the lions and they showed neither temporal nor spatial avoidance of the lions. The rates of kleptoparasitism were lower and the kill retention times were longer than those reported elsewhere in Africa, and it is suggested that this is a consequence of the cover provided by the thicket vegetation and prey size. The home ranges (95% UDs) of female cheetahs incorporated more thicket vegetation than that of the coalition, indicating that the coalition is less susceptible to predation than single females. These data suggest that cheetahs possess greater behavioural flexibility than previously reported, that they can hunt successfully in thicket vegetation, sometimes in darkness, that they are not restricted to killing small to medium-sized prey, and that they may not be savanna specialists.     

Trends in cheetah Acinonyx jubatus density in north-central Namibia

Assessing trends in abundance and density of species of conservation concern is vital to inform conservation and management strategies. The remaining population of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) largely exists outside of protected areas, where they are often in conflict with humans. Despite this, the population status and dynamics of cheetah outside of protected areas have received relatively limited attention across its range. We analyzed remote camera trapping data of nine surveys conducted from 2005 to 2014 in the Waterberg Conservancy, north-central Namibia, which included detections of 74 individuals (52 adult males, 7 adult females and 15 dependents). Using spatial capture–recapture methods, we assessed annual and seasonal trends in cheetah density. We found evidence of a stable trend in cheetah density over the study period, with an average density of 1.94/100 km² (95% confidence interval 1.33–2.84). This apparent stability of cheetah density is likely the result of stable and abundant prey availability, a high tolerance to carnivores by farmers and low turnover rates in home range tenure. This study highlights the importance of promoting long-term surveys that capture a broad range of environmental variation that may influence species density and the importance of nonprotected areas for cheetah conservation.     

Spoor density as a measure of true density of a known population of free-ranging wild cheetah in Botswana

Knowledge of the abundance of animal populations is essential for their management and conservation. Determining reliable measures of abundance is, however, difficult, especially with wide-ranging species such as cheetah Acinonyx jubatus . This study generated a correction factor to calculate true cheetah density from spoor survey data and subsequently tested its accuracy using the following season's data. Data were collected from October 2005 to December 2006 on a known population of wild, free-ranging cheetah in the Jwana Game Reserve, Botswana. The cheetahs in the area were captured, tagged and photographed. The reserve was divided into twelve 9 km transects covering all vegetation types and prey densities. The total sampling distance was 8226 km, with a spoor density of 2.32 individual cheetah spoor per 100 km². To determine a precise and accurate spoor density, it was necessary to sample for a longer period during the dry season (April–September) than during the wet season (October–March). This difference may be due to cheetah behavioural changes with seasonal variations in habitat and prey. The true density was 5.23 cheetahs  per 100 km² ranging from 3.33 to 7.78 at the low and high points of the population, respectively. A positive linear correlation between spoor and true density was observed. This relationship differed in the wet and dry season and required refinement with the following season's data. Correction factors may be viable, but require further testing taking the behavioural responses to seasonal, habitat and prey variations into consideration.     

Captive breeding of cheetahs in North American Zoos: 1987–1991

From 1987 to 1991, the North American captive cheetah population increased by 38% (to 266 animals), due to importation and captive breeding. This population constitutes 26% of the world's captive cheetahs and 36% of all reproductively successful animals. Since 1956, 33% of all cubs born in North America occurred during this 5-year period. Because of importation of animals from breeding programs abroad, East African (A. jubatus raineyi) genes have been introduced into the North American cheetah population, and 39% of all cubs born during 1987--1991 were South African/East African hybrids. Also during this time, the breeding population and effective breeding population increased by 86% and 72.6%, respectively. The incidence of infant mortality decreased from 37% (last recorded for the years 1956 to 1986) to 28% (averaged over 5 years), although infant mortality during the latter period ranged from 15% (for unrelated parents) to 41% (for related parents). Management recommendations implemented to increase fecundity and population size appear to be successful, although the founder base of the population still has only been increased from 52 cheetahs in 1986 to 72 animals in 1991. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Spatial ecology of cheetahs on north-central Namibian farmlands

Knowledge of a species' ranging behaviour is both fundamental to understanding its behavioural ecology and a prerequisite to planning its management. Few data exist on the spatial ecology of cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus outside protected areas, but such areas are particularly important to their conservation. Cheetahs on Namibian farmlands occupied exceptionally large home ranges, averaging 1651 km² (±1594 km²), with no detectable effect of sex, social grouping or seasonality. Despite such large ranges, cheetahs tended to utilize intensively only a small fraction of that area: 50% of the fixes were located within an average of 13.9±5.3% of the home range. Ranges were not exclusive, overlapping on average by 15.8±17.0%, with male cheetahs showing more intra-sexual range overlap than did females. Coalitions of males appeared to select for a dense, prey-rich habitat, but this preference was not apparent for other social groupings. Conflict with humans is an important contributor to the species' decline, and these large, overlapping cheetah home ranges result in the movements of each individual cheetah encompassing many farms (21 based on the average home-range size). Consequently, many cheetahs may be exposed to a minority of farmers attempting to kill them, and also that many farmers may see the same cheetahs, thereby gaining an exaggerated impression of their abundance. Conservation priorities for cheetahs outside protected areas are the development of techniques for conflict resolution, as well as the maintenance and restoration of suitable habitat and promotion of land-management practices compatible with the continued existence of large carnivores.     

Behavioral correlates of physiological estrus in cheetahs

Historically, the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) has been known for its poor reproductive performance in captivity. Although breeding success has improved over the past decade, the percentage of breeders in the captive population is still low and successful propagation unpredictable. Estrus in this species has been reported as “silent” by some, therefore contributing to breeding problems by making appropriate timing of pair introductions difficult. To investigate whether any observable behavioral changes may be associated with estrus, we carried out quantitative behavioral observations and concomitant noninvasive monitoring of estradiol metabolites excreted in feces of 14 captive female cheetahs for periods of 5–22 consecutive weeks. We found that changes in fecal estradiol concentrations correlated significantly with variation in the occurrence of several types of behaviors, including rolling, rubbing, sniffing, vocalizing, and urine spraying. However, the number and types of correlated behaviors varied across females, revealing no single behavior indicative of estrus, but rather a constellation of behaviors that increased in frequency when estradiol concentrations were elevated. There was no significant difference in the overall average estradiol concentrations or peak values of the females that had previously mated and conceived compared to those of the females that had failed to breed. Successful breeders appeared to show significantly higher rates of rubbing and rolling than nonbreeders. However, rates of rubbing, rolling, and urine spraying also were found to increase with age, and older individuals were more likely to have bred. The results of this study indicate that estrus in the cheetah cannot be regarded as “silent” since the frequencies of some behaviors appear to covary with fluctuating estradiol levels. However, behavioral monitoring of estrus may nevertheless be difficult and time-consuming due to individual variation and subtle changes in behavioral frequencies rather than changes in the types of behaviors displayed. Zoo Biol 17:193–209, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Early maternal behavior of wild cheetahs: Implications for captive husbandry

Against a background of poor breeding success and cub survival in captive cheetahs, a knowledge of the early maternal behavior in the wild may yield useful information for comparison with the captive situation. This paper documents the types of lair sites used by mothers to conceal their newborn cubs in the wild situation, and details patterns of maternal behavior observed during this period. Four kinds of lairs were used by cheetah mothers, and the amount of protection from the elements and predators was assessed for each. Lair type appeared to have little effect on cub survival. Cubs were concealed in lairs for 8.2 weeks on average, although larger litters tended to leave lairs earlier. During this period, cubs were moved to new lairs approximately every 5.6 days. Cubs were left for an average of 9.6 hours while their mothers went hunting, but mothers virtually always returned to them around nightfall, even if they failed to catch any prey. Maternal neglect and cub abandonment, which account for many cub deaths in captivity, are abnormal in the wild, except when prey is very scarce. Improved husbandry techniques, such as the provision of multiple, secluded nest boxes, and remote monitoring conditions should promote breeding success in captivity. In addition, noise and human disturbance should be minimized.     

Phylogeography, genetic structure and population divergence time of cheetahs in Africa and Asia: evidence for long-term geographic isolates

The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) has been described as a species with low levels of genetic variation. This has been suggested to be the consequence of a demographic bottleneck 10 000–12 000 years ago (ya) and also led to the assumption that only small genetic differences exist between the described subspecies. However, analysing mitochondrial DNA and microsatellites in cheetah samples from most of the historic range of the species we found relatively deep phylogeographic breaks between some of the investigated populations, and most of the methods assessed divergence time estimates predating the postulated bottleneck. Mitochondrial DNA monophyly and overall levels of genetic differentiation support the distinctiveness of Northern‐East African cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus soemmeringii). Moreover, combining archaeozoological and contemporary samples, we show that Asiatic cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) are unambiguously separated from African subspecies. Divergence time estimates from mitochondrial and nuclear data place the split between Asiatic and Southern African cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus jubatus) at 32 000–67 000 ya using an average mammalian microsatellite mutation rate and at 4700–44 000 ya employing human microsatellite mutation rates. Cheetahs are vulnerable to extinction globally and critically endangered in their Asiatic range, where the last 70–110 individuals survive only in Iran. We demonstrate that these extant Iranian cheetahs are an autochthonous monophyletic population and the last representatives of the Asiatic subspecies A. j. venaticus. We advocate that conservation strategies should consider the uncovered independent evolutionary histories of Asiatic and African cheetahs, as well as among some African subspecies. This would facilitate the dual conservation priorities of maintaining locally adapted ecotypes and genetic diversity.     

Behavioral differences as predictors of breeding status in captive cheetahs

Individual behavioral variation of 44 adult captive‐born cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus, was assessed using observer and keeper ratings on a variety of behavioral attributes. Inter‐rater consensus was high for most questionnaire items, several of which were significantly correlated with direct behavioral measures recorded in a mirror‐image experiment. Principal component analysis was applied to identify patterns of individual variation as measured by observer and keeper ratings. Three major components, labeled as tense‐fearful, excitable‐vocal, and aggressive, accounted for 69% of the observed variation. Females showed significantly higher scores on the component tense‐fearful than males. Non‐breeders of both sexes scored significantly higher on the component tense‐fearful than breeders. Assessment of individual behavioral variation through questionnaire ratings may therefore provide a simple and non‐invasive tool for predicting an individual's ability to adjust to the constraints of certain husbandry regimens and to reproduce in captivity. Simple measures of behavioral attributes may offer new insights for solving breeding problems and improving conservation management of endangered species in captivity. Zoo Biol 18:335–349, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Family effects on early survival and variance in long-term reproductive success of female cheetahs

1. While it is generally accepted that the survival of offspring within families may be correlated, the extent of correlation has been largely untested. Furthermore, the impact of such correlation on the estimated variance in females' reproductive success has rarely been quantified. 2. Here we use an exceptional data set from a long-term study of individually recognized cheetahs from the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania to formally quantify family effects in carnivores. 3. We show (i) that cubs from the same litter exhibit more similar fates than unrelated cubs when it comes to first-year survival; and (ii) that the observed variance of the long-term reproductive success of females is twice the variance expected under the assumption of complete independence of fates between cubs. 4. We suggest that family effects are likely to be widespread in vertebrates with average litter sizes > 1, and could have important consequences for population dynamics and population viability analyses.     

FLUCTUATING ODONTOMETRIC ASYMMETRY,MORPHOLOGICAL VARIABILITY,AND GENETIC MONOMORPHISM IN THE CHEETAH ACINONYX JUBATUS

The magnitudes of dimensional variability and fluctuating asymmetry in dental dimensions are reported for a sample of South African cheetah Acinonyx jubatus. To test the hypothesis that elevated levels of variability and asymmetry are associated with the increased developmental instability reported for this species, our results were contrasted to those for two other felids: Felis lybica and F. caracal. These findings suggest that dental dimensions in cheetahs are not significantly more variable or asymmetric. Hence, it is concluded that the cheetah may not be as developmentally unstable as was previously supposed.     

人工育幼非洲狮、孟加拉虎、豹幼仔的生长曲线拟合比较

<正>生长曲线(Growth curve)是揭示动物生长发育规律的有效手段之一,反映动物发育指标(包括体重、体尺、体表面积等度量值)与时间之间的关系(盛志廉和吴常信,1995)。生长曲线方程大致可以分为三类：第一类是表示报酬递减规律的方程,如指数函数;第二类是描述光滑S型曲线,     

半散放猎豹毛发微量元素含量比较

许多微量元素与动物生理生化机能有着密切的联系,对机体的生长发育和维持健康起着重要作用.近年来,微量元素研究日渐得到重视,如Cu、 Zn、 Mn、 Se、 Pb等微量元素参与酶、激素和维生素代谢,影响动物生殖功能(Suchocki et al., 2003).     

The composition of cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) milk

Milk was obtained from two captive bred cheetahs. The nutrient content was 99.6 g protein; 64.8 g fat; and 40.21 g lactose per kg milk. Small amounts of oligosaccharides, glucose, galactose and fucose were noted. The protein fraction respectively consisted of 34.2 g caseins per kg milk and of 65.3 g whey proteins per kg milk. Very little variation in milk composition among the individual cheetahs was noted. Electrophoresis and identification of protein bands showed a similar migrating sequence of proteins as seen in lion's and cat's milk, with small differences in the β-caseins. The lipid fraction contains 290.4 g saturated and 337.3 g mono-unsaturated fatty acids per kg milk fat respectively. The high content of 279.5 g kg^− 1 milk fat of polyunsaturated fatty acids is due to a high content in α-linolenic acid. No short chain fatty acids, but substantial levels of uneven carbon chain fatty acids were observed.     

Evaluation of two milk replacers fed to hand‐reared cheetah cubs (Acinonyx jubatus): nutrient composition,apparent total tract digestibility,and comparison to maternal cheetah milk

Commercially prepared milk replacers are frequently used to provide the sole source of nutrition for hand‐reared cheetah cubs (Acinonyx jubatus). The nutrient composition of two commonly used milk replacers was determined. Using titanium dioxide as an indigestible marker, nutrient digestibility was calculated from the analyses of fecal samples collected from each cub (n = 4 on formula 1, and n = 2 on formula 2). Mean apparent total tract digestibility for both formulas was >90% for all nutrients analyzed (crude protein, amino acids, crude fat (CF), and dry matter). However, the total CF content and the concentration of the essential fatty acids, such as α‐linolenic, linolenic, and arachidonic acid, of both formulas was lower than reported for maternal cheetah milk. Additionally, one formula contained a comparatively high amount of carbohydrate, at the expense of protein. Although data were lacking for cheetah maternal milk, comparison with domestic cat milk revealed high concentrations of a number of minerals (K, Fe, Zn, and Cu), while vitamin D₃ was not detected in one formula. Both formulas were low in the majority of essential amino acids compared with domestic cat maternal milk. Despite their apparently high digestibility, neither formula was complete or balanced in terms of nutrient concentrations and ratios when maternal cheetah milk and/or the requirements established for growth in domestic cats were used as estimates of ideal. On this basis, although all cubs in this study were healthy and maintained good body conditions for the duration of the trial, the results of dietary analyses indicate that these milk replacers may not provide optimal nutrition for growth in cheetah cubs when used for extended periods. Zoo Biol 30:412–426, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Analyses of factors influencing the birth weight and neonatal growth rate of Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) cubs

Birth weight and the neonatal growth rate are reliable indicators of neonatal survival prospects. Data on weight at birth and consecutive weights until 40 days of age were recorded for cheetah cubs in 16 litters. Growth was found to be linear during the first 40 days of life. Weight data were used to evaluate the influence of several factors on birth weight and neonatal growth. The factors used in these analyses were sex, litter identity, litter size, average litter size over the first 40 days, birth weight, parents, gestation length, parity of the dam, and inbreeding. For birth weight and neonatal growth, litter identity was the major explanatory factor (81.8 and 85.3%). For birth weight, a significant influence of gestation length was found (p < 0.05), whereas inbreeding coefficient tended to decrease the birth weight (p = 0.09). Together, gestation length and inbreeding coefficient account for 57.5% of the between‐litter variation for birth weight. Factors with significant influences on neonatal growth are gestation length and parity (p < 0.05). The average litter size over the first 40 days tended to influence neonatal growth (p = 0.07). These three variables together account for 99.9% of the between‐litter variation for neonatal growth during the first 40 days of life. A comparison of neonatal growth between mother‐raised and hand‐raised cubs revealed a lower growth rate in hand‐raised cubs (45 vs. 27 g/day). Zoo Biol 18:129–139, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

猎豹(Acinonyx jubatus)肠道微生物多样性及其性别差异研究

[目的]探讨猎豹（Acinonyx jubatus）肠道微生物多样性特征。[方法]通过采集新鲜粪便样品,对9只健康成年野生猎豹（4只雄性,5只雌性）的肠道微生物16S rRNA基因V3-V4区进行高通量测序,对猎豹肠道微生物多样性进行研究。[结果]测序共获得肠道微生物16S rRNA基因V3-V4区有效序列599349条,序列平均长度405 bp。通过以97%的序列相似性进行分类,共获得操作分类单元（OTU） 268个。经序列比对和分类鉴定,这些OTU都属于细菌域,包括10个门,21个纲,35个目,72个科,144个属。其中,丰度最高的5个细菌门是厚壁菌门（Firmicutes,平均占OTU总数的42.29%%）、放线菌门（Actinobacteria,31.54%）、梭杆菌门（Fusobacteroidetes,16.66%）、变形菌门（Proteobacteria,5.30%）和拟杆菌门（Bacteroidetes,4.19%）。拟杆菌门的丰度较低是猎豹肠道微生物的主要特征。丰度最高的5个科依次是红蝽杆菌科（Coriobacteriaceae,31.28%）、消化链球菌科（Peptostreptococcaceae,平均占17.66%）,梭杆菌科（Fusobacteriaceae,15.46%）、毛螺菌科（Lachnospiraceae,12.40%）、梭菌科I（Clostridiaceae_I,6.93%）等。丰度最高的5个属依次是柯林斯氏菌属（Collinsella,30.16%）、梭杆菌属（Fusobacterium,15.46%）、艰难梭菌属（Peptoclostridium,11.46%）、Blautia属（8.28%）和狭窄梭菌属1（Clostridium_sensu_stricto_1,6.39%）。约有2.32%的OTU没有归类到属。群落alpha多样性分析结果显示,猎豹肠道微生物群落Shannon指数为2.93-4.41,Simpson指数为0.72-0.91。通过依据性别进行分组,对雌雄两组之间的alpha多样性比较表明,雄性组的物种和Shannon指数略高于雌性组。Beta多样性分析表明,雌雄两组之间的差异高于各组内部不同个体之间的差异。然而,聚类分析显示,相同性别的猎豹的肠道微生物并没有聚在一起。[结论]本文通过高通量测序技术研究了猎豹肠道微生物多样性特征和性别差异,为猎豹的保护、救护饲养和消化生理学研究提供了基础数据。     

Factors affecting life and death in Serengeti cheetahs: environment, age, and sociality

We examined environmental and social factors affecting reproductivesuccess across a 20-year data set of individually known cheetahson the Serengeti Plains of Tanzania. Because cheetahs are seeninfrequently and are not amenable to mark–recapture techniques,we devised a model to estimate time of death for individualsthat disappeared from our records. We found that males had markedlylower survival than females. Recruitment was negatively affectedby rainfall but positively affected by numbers of Thomson'sgazelles, the cheetahs' chief prey. There was a negative associationbetween recruitment and numbers of lions, demonstrating thatthe high rates of predation observed in previous studies haveimplications for the dynamics of cheetah populations. Recruitmentwas related to mother's age, peaking when she reached 6–7years. Sociality affected survival in two ways. First, adolescentsliving in temporary sibling groups had higher survival thansingletons, particularly males with sisters. Second, adult malesliving in coalitions had higher survival than singletons inperiods when other coalitions were numerous, yet they had lowersurvival when other coalitions were rare. These results corroborateobservations of enhanced prey capture by female adolescentsand antipredator benefits for adolescents in groups, as wellas competitive advantages for adult males in groups. Furthermore,our findings stress the importance of interactions between environmentaland social factors in affecting reproductive success in mammals.