Degradation of aniline by newly isolated,extremely aniline-tolerant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Delftia </Emphasis>sp. AN3

A bacterial strain, AN3, which was able to use aniline or acetanilide as sole carbon, nitrogen and energy sources was isolated from activated sludge and identified as Delftiasp. AN3. This strain was capable of growing on concentrations of aniline up to 53.8 mM (5000 mg/l). Substituted anilines such as N-methylaniline, N, N-dimethylaniline, 2-methylaniline, 4-methylaniline, 2-chloroaniline, 3-chloroaniline, o-aminoaniline, m-aminoaniline, p-aminoaniline, and sulfanilic acid did not support the growth of strain AN3. The optimal temperature and pH for growth and degradation of aniline were 30 degrees C and 7.0, respectively. The activities of aniline dioxygenase, catechol 2,3-dioxygenase and other enzymes involved in aniline degradation were determined, and results indicated that all of them were inducible. The K (m) and V (max) of aniline dioxygenase were 0.29 mM and 0.043 mmol/mg protein/min, respectively. The K (m) and V (max) of catechol 2, 3-dioxygenase for catechol were 0.016 mM and 0.015 mmol/mg protein/min, respectively. Based on the results obtained, a pathway for the degradation of aniline by Delftiasp. AN3 was proposed. The importance of the strain to the operation of municipal wastewater treatment plants is discussed.     

Proteome analysis of Pseudomonas sp. K82 biodegradation pathways

Pseudomonas sp. K82 is a soil bacterium that can degrade and use monocyclic aromatic compounds including aniline, 3-methylaniline, 4-methylaniline, benzoate and p-hydroxybenzoate as its sole carbon and energy sources. In order to understand the impact of these aromatic compounds on metabolic pathways in Pseudomonas sp. K82, proteomes obtained from cultures exposed to different substrates were displayed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and were compared to search for differentially induced metabolic enzymes. Column separations of active fractions were performed to identify major biodegradation enzymes. More than thirty proteins involved in biodegradation and other types of metabolism were identified by electrospray ionization-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry. The proteome analysis suggested that Pseudomonas sp. K82 has three main metabolic pathways to degrade these aromatic compounds and induces specific metabolic pathways for each compound. The catechol 2,3-dioxygenase (CD2,3) pathway was the major pathway and the catechol 1,2-dioxygenase (beta-ketoadipate) pathway was the secondary pathway induced by aniline (aniline analogues) exposure. On the other hand, the catechol 1,2-dioxygenase pathway was the major pathway induced by benzoate exposure. For the degradation of p-hydroxybenzoate, the protocatechuate 4,5-dioxygenase pathway was the major degradation pathway induced. The nuclear magnetic resonance analysis of substrates demonstrated that Pseudomonas sp. K82 metabolizes some aromatic compounds more rapidly than others (benzoate > p-hydroxybenzoate > aniline) and that when combined, p-hydroxybenzoate metabolism is repressed by the presence of benzoate or aniline. These results suggest that proteome analysis can be useful in the high throughput study of bacterial metabolic pathways, including that of biodegradation, and that inter-relationships exist with respect to the metabolic pathways of aromatic compounds in Pseudomonas sp. K82.     

Biochemical,Transcriptional and Translational Evidences of the Phenol-meta-Degradation Pathway by the Hyperthermophilic Sulfolobus solfataricus 98/2

Phenol is a widespread pollutant and a model molecule to study the biodegradation of monoaromatic compounds. After a first oxidation step leading to catechol in mesophilic and thermophilic microorganisms, two main routes have been identified depending on the cleavage of the aromatic ring: ortho involving a catechol 1,2 dioxygenase (C12D) and meta involving a catechol 2,3 dioxygenase (C23D). Our work aimed at elucidating the phenol-degradation pathway in the hyperthermophilic archaea Sulfolobus solfataricus 98/2. For this purpose, the strain was cultivated in a fermentor under different substrate and oxygenation conditions. Indeed, reducing dissolved-oxygen concentration allowed slowing down phenol catabolism (specific growth and phenol-consumption rates dropped 55% and 39%, respectively) and thus, evidencing intermediate accumulations in the broth. HPLC/Diode Array Detector and LC-MS analyses on culture samples at low dissolved-oxygen concentration (DOC  =  0.06 mg.L⁻¹) suggested, apart for catechol, the presence of 2-hydroxymuconic acid, 4-oxalocrotonate and 4-hydroxy-2-oxovalerate, three intermediates of the meta route. RT-PCR analysis on oxygenase-coding genes of S. solfataricus 98/2 showed that the gene coding for the C23D was expressed only on phenol. In 2D-DIGE/MALDI-TOF analysis, the C23D was found and identified only on phenol. This set of results allowed us concluding that S. solfataricus 98/2 degrade phenol through the meta route.     

Cloning and functional analysis of aniline dioxygenase gene cluster, from Frateuria species ANA-18, that metabolizes aniline via an ortho-cleavage pathway of catechol

Genes encoding an aniline dioxygenase of Frateuria sp. ANA-18, which metabolizes aniline via the ortho-cleavage pathway of catechol, were cloned and named tdn genes. The tdn genes were located on the chromosomal DNA of this bacterium and weren't clustered with catechol-degrading gene clusters. These results show that the ANA-18 aniline-degrading gene cluster is constructionally different from Pseudomonas tdn and Acinetobacter atd gene clusters, which degrade aniline via the meta-cleavage pathway of catechol and organize catechol-metabolic genes in the gene clusters. When cloned tdnQTA1A2B genes were expressed in Eschherichia coli, aniline dioxygenase activity was observed. Southern blot analysis revealed that homologues of the tdnA1A2B genes didn't exist in strain ANA-18. Disruption of the tdnA1A2 genes gave the parent strain ANA-18 a defect in aniline metabolism. On the basis of these results, we concluded that only the cloned tdn genes function as genes encoding aniline dioxygenase in strain ANA-18 although this bacterium had two catechol-degrading gene clusters.     

三氯卡班降解菌株Sphingomonas sp. YL-JM2C中多个邻苯二酚双加氧酶的功能

【目的】研究Sphingomonas sp.YL-JM2C菌株的生长特性,确定以三氯卡班作为碳源的生长情况。挖掘菌株YL-JM2C潜在的邻苯二酚1,2-双加氧酶及邻苯二酚2,3-双加氧酶基因,在大肠杆菌(Escherichia coli)中异源表达邻苯二酚双加氧酶基因并研究其酶学性质。【方法】优化S.sp.YL-JM2C菌株以三氯卡班作为碳源时的培养条件,并利用全自动生长曲线测定仪测定菌株生长情况,绘制生长曲线。通过生物信息学方法挖掘潜在的邻苯二酚双加氧酶基因,并分别在Escherichia coli BL21(DE3)中进行异源表达,通过AKTA快速纯化系统纯化蛋白,分别以邻苯二酚、3-和4-氯邻苯二酚为底物检测重组蛋白的酶学特性。【结果】菌株在pH为7.0-7.5时生长最优。在以浓度为4-8 mg/L的三氯卡班做为底物时,菌株适宜生长。当R2A培养基仅含有0.01%酵母提取物和无机盐时,加入终浓度为4 mg/L的三氯卡班可促进菌株生长。挖掘到6个潜在的邻苯二酚双加氧酶基因stcA1、stcA2、stcA3、stcE1、stcE2和stcE3,表达并通过粗酶液分析证明其中5个基因stcA1、stcA2、stcA3、stcE1和stcE2编码的酶均具有邻苯二酚双加氧酶和氯邻苯二酚双加氧酶的活性;纯化酶的底物范围研究揭示了StcA1、StcA2和StcA3均属于Ⅱ型邻苯二酚1,2-双加氧酶,StcE1和StcE2为两个新型邻苯二酚2,3-双加氧酶;它们酶动力学分析研究证明了5个酶对邻苯二酚的亲和力和催化效率最高,4-氯邻苯二酚次之。【结论】在同一菌株中发现了5个具有功能的邻苯二酚双加氧酶基因,stcA1、stcA2和stcA3编码的酶均属于Ⅱ型邻苯二酚1,2-双加氧酶,stcE1和stcE2为两个新型邻苯二酚2,3-双加氧酶编码基因。5个酶均具有催化邻苯二酚和氯邻苯二酚开环反应的功能,这为更好地理解微生物基因组内代谢邻苯二酚及其衍生物氯代邻苯二酚基因的多样性奠定了基础。     

Bacterial metabolism of hydroxylated biphenyls.

Isolates able to grow on 3- or 4-hydroxybiphenyl (HB) as the sole carbon source were obtained by enrichment culture. The 3-HB degrader Pseudomonas sp. strain FH12 used an NADPH-dependent monooxygenase restricted to 3- and 3,3'-HBs to introduce an ortho-hydroxyl. The 4-HB degrader Pseudomonas sp. strain FH23 used either a mono- or dioxygenase to generate a 2,3-diphenolic substitution pattern which allowed meta-fission of the aromatic ring. By using 3-chlorocatechol to inhibit catechol dioxygenase activity, it was found that 2- and 3-HBs were converted by FH23 to 2,3-HB, whereas biphenyl and 4-HB were attacked by dioxygenation. 4-HB was metabolized to 2,3,4'-trihydroxybiphenyl. Neither organism attacked chlorinated HBs. The degradation of 3- and 4-HBs by these strains is therefore analogous to the metabolism of biphenyl, 2-HB, and naphthalene in the requirement for 2,3-catechol formation.     

Bacterial metabolism of hydroxylated biphenyls

Isolates able to grow on 3- or 4-hydroxybiphenyl (HB) as the sole carbon source were obtained by enrichment culture. The 3-HB degrader Pseudomonas sp. strain FH12 used an NADPH-dependent monooxygenase restricted to 3- and 3,3'-HBs to introduce an ortho-hydroxyl. The 4-HB degrader Pseudomonas sp. strain FH23 used either a mono- or dioxygenase to generate a 2,3-diphenolic substitution pattern which allowed meta-fission of the aromatic ring. By using 3-chlorocatechol to inhibit catechol dioxygenase activity, it was found that 2- and 3-HBs were converted by FH23 to 2,3-HB, whereas biphenyl and 4-HB were attacked by dioxygenation. 4-HB was metabolized to 2,3,4'-trihydroxybiphenyl. Neither organism attacked chlorinated HBs. The degradation of 3- and 4-HBs by these strains is therefore analogous to the metabolism of biphenyl, 2-HB, and naphthalene in the requirement for 2,3-catechol formation.     

Pathways in the degradation of hydrolyzed alcohols of butyl benzyl phthalate in metabolically diverse Gordonia sp. strain MTCC 4818

In the present study, the metabolic pathways involved in the degradation of benzyl alcohol and 1-butanol, the hydrolyzed products of butyl benzyl phthalate, were investigated by the Gordonia sp. strain MTCC 4818. The strain can utilize both benzyl alcohol and 1-butanol individually as sole carbon sources, where benzyl alcohol was found to be metabolized via benzaldehyde, benzoic acid and catechol, which was further degraded by ortho-cleavage dioxygenase to cis,cis-muconic acid and subsequently to muconolactone leading to tricarboxylic acid cycle. On the other hand, 1-butanol was metabolized via butyraldehyde and butyric acid, which was channeled into the tricarboxylic acid cycle via the beta-oxidation pathway. Numbers of dehydrogenases, both NAD+-dependent and NAD+-independent, were found to be involved in the degradation of benzyl alcohol and 1-butanol, where several dehydrogenases exhibited relaxed substrate specificity. Both 2,3- and 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acids were utilized by the test organism for growth and metabolized by the ortho-cleavage pathway by the cell-free extract of benzoate-grown cells, similar to catechol, suggesting possible broad substrate specificity of the ring cleavage dioxygenase. Moreover, the test organism can utilize various primary and secondary alcohols, aliphatic aldehydes and acids in the C2-C5 range besides n-hexadecane, 1,4-butanediol and cyclohexanol individually as the sole carbon sources indicating metabolic diversity in the Gordonia sp. strain MTCC 4818.     

丛毛睾丸酮单胞菌ZD4-1和铜绿假单胞菌ZD4-3降解芳香烃化合物的机理

从某农药厂二沉池污泥中筛选分离得到两株革兰氏阴性的芳香烃降解菌ZD41和ZD43。经鉴定,它们分别属于Comamonas testosteroni和Pseudomonas aeruginosa。基于16S rDNA 序列的系统分类分析,结果表明,在分类地位上菌株ZD41和ZD43 分别属于两个不同的分类亚组。苯酚降解产物紫外光谱扫描和双加氧酶检测证明,菌株ZD41利用邻裂途径降解苯酚,而ZD43则通过间裂途径降解苯酚,邻裂途径的1,2双加氧酶和间裂途径的2,3双加氧酶都是可诱导的双加氧酶,其活性强烈的依赖于降解底物的出现。芳香烃降解试验结果表明,邻裂和间裂两种途径的降解性能不一样,虽然ZD43降解苯酚的效率要高于菌株ZD41,但是ZD41降解苯酚的pH值范围以及芳烃利用基质谱宽于后者。     

Degradation of 4-Chlorophenol via the meta Cleavage Pathway by Comamonas testosteroni JH5

Comamonas testosteroni JH5 used 4-chlorophenol (4-CP) as its sole source of energy and carbon up to a concentration of 1.8 mM, accompanied by the stoichiometric release of chloride. The degradation of 4-CP mixed with the isomeric 2-CP by resting cells led to the accumulation of 3-chlorocatechol (3-CC), which inactivated the catechol 2,3-dioxygenase. As a result, further 4-CP breakdown was inhibited and 4-CC accumulated as a metabolite. In the crude extract of 4-CP-grown cells, catechol 1,2-dioxygenase and muconate cycloisomerase activities were not detected, whereas the activities of catechol 2,3-dioxygenase, 2-hydroxymuconic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, 2-hydroxymuconic semialdehyde hydrolase, and 2-oxopent-4-enoate hydratase were detected. These enzymes of the meta cleavage pathway showed activity with 4-CC and with 5-chloro-2-hydroxymuconic semialdehyde. The activities of the dioxygenase and semialdehyde dehydrogenase were constitutive. Two key metabolites of the meta cleavage pathway, the meta cleavage product (5-chloro-2-hydroxymuconic semialdehyde) and 5-chloro-2-hydroxymuconic acid, were detected. Thus, our previous postulation that C. testosteroni JH5 uses the meta cleavage pathway for the complete mineralization of 4-CP was confirmed.     

Characterization of a Pseudomonas sp. Capable of Aniline Degradation in the Presence of Secondary Carbon Sources

Pseudomonas strain K1 is a gram-negative rod which grows aerobically on minimal media containing aniline with a doubling time of 2 h at 30°C. The half-saturation parameter for aniline metabolism by aniline-grown cells was 3.8 μmol · liter⁻¹. Concentrations of aniline as low as 50 nM were metabolized. Neither substituted anilines nor other aromatic compounds (other than aromatic amino acids) supported growth. Cells grew as fast on aniline as on nonaromatic substrates such as lactate. The aromatic ring was cleaved via the meta pathway. Catechol 2,3-oxygenase activity was induced by aniline, even in cultures containing alternative carbon sources such as lactate. Cultures grown on a mixture of aniline and lactate mineralized aniline in the presence of the second substrate. Lactate-grown cultures lacked catechol oxygenase activity, and resting cells from these cultures did not respire aniline. Resting cells from aniline-grown cultures exhibited high respiratory activity upon the addition of aniline or catechol, some activity with toluidine, and no activity after addition of a wide variety of other aromatic compounds, including dihydroxybenzylamine, chloroanilines, ethylanilines, aminophenols, aminobenzoates, and dihydroxybenzoates. Although substituted anilines were not metabolized, 3-or 4-chloroaniline did induce the enzymes for aniline oxidation.     

邻苯二酚2,3-双加氧酶的结构和功能研究进展

邻苯二酚是所有芳香族化合物降解过程中的重要的中间产物,其降解有邻位和间位裂解两条裂解途径,分别由邻苯二酚1,2-双加氧酶(C12O)和邻苯二酚2,3-双加氧酶(C23O)催化裂解。本综述简要介绍了邻苯二酚2,3-双加氧酶的结构和功能的研究进展。     

Mass spectrometric mapping of the enzymes involved in the phenol degradation of an indigenous soil pseudomonad

The enzymes involved in the degradation of phenol by a new soil bacterium referred as Pseudomonas sp. strain phDV1 were characterized. The key enzyme catalyzing the second step in the phenol degradation meta-cleavage pathway, catechol 2,3-dioxygenase (C23O), was isolated using sucrose density centrifugation and anion exchange chromatography. The purified C23O was detected and identified by absorption spectroscopy and peptide mapping. Further, the Pseudomonas sp. strain phDV1 proteome was monitored under different growth substrate conditions, using glucose or phenol as sole carbon and energy source. Sucrose density centrifugation was used to collect and concentrate the cell fraction exhibiting C23O activity and to reduce the complexity of the total protein mixture. 1-DE Tricine PAGE electrophoresis separation in combination with MALDI-TOF MS was attempted for the identification of the proteins involved in the metabolic pathway. We found a different expression of 19 proteins depending on the growth substrate (phenol or glucose) and 10 were identified as enzymes involved in the phenol degradation.     

Function of a Glutamine Synthetase-Like Protein in Bacterial Aniline Oxidation via γ-Glutamylanilide

Acinetobacter sp. strain YAA has five genes (atdA1 to atdA5) involved in aniline oxidation as a part of the aniline degradation gene cluster. From sequence analysis, the five genes were expected to encode a glutamine synthetase (GS)-like protein (AtdA1), a glutamine amidotransferase-like protein (AtdA2), and an aromatic compound dioxygenase (AtdA3, AtdA4, and AtdA5) (M. Takeo, T. Fujii, and Y. Maeda, J. Ferment. Bioeng. 85:17-24, 1998). A recombinant Pseudomonas strain harboring these five genes quantitatively converted aniline into catechol, demonstrating that catechol is the major oxidation product from aniline. To elucidate the function of the GS-like protein AtdA1 in aniline oxidation, we purified it from recombinant Escherichia coli harboring atdA1. The purified AtdA1 protein produced gamma-glutamylanilide (γ-GA) quantitatively from aniline and l-glutamate in the presence of ATP and MgCl₂. This reaction was identical to glutamine synthesis by GS, except for the use of aniline instead of ammonia as the substrate. Recombinant Pseudomonas strains harboring the dioxygenase genes (atdA3 to atdA5) were unable to degrade aniline but converted γ-GA into catechol, indicating that γ-GA is an intermediate to catechol and a direct substrate for the dioxygenase. Unexpectedly, a recombinant Pseudomonas strain harboring only atdA2 hydrolyzed γ-GA into aniline, reversing the γ-GA formation by AtdA1. Deletion of atdA2 from atdA1 to atdA5 caused γ-GA accumulation from aniline in recombinant Pseudomonas cells and inhibited the growth of a recombinant Acinetobacter strain on aniline, suggesting that AtdA2 prevents γ-GA accumulation that is harmful to the host cell.     

Role of Catechol and the Methylcatechols as Inducers of Aromatic Metabolism in Pseudomonas putida

Pseudomonas putida NCIB 10015 metabolizes phenol and the cresols (methylphenols) by the meta pathway and metabolizes benzoate by the ortho pathway. Growth on catechol, an intermediate in the metabolism of both phenol and benzoate, induces both ortho and meta pathways; growth on 3- or 4-methylcatechols, intermediates in the metabolism of the cresols, induces only the meta pathway to a very limited degree. Addition of catechol at a growth-limiting rate induces virtually no meta pathway enzymes, but high levels of ortho pathway enzymes. The role of catechol and the methylcatechols as inducers is discussed. A method is described for assaying low levels of catechol 1,2-oxygenase in the presence of high levels of catechol 2,3-oxygenase and vice versa.     

食酸丛毛单胞菌AN3菌株降解苯胺代谢途径的研究

食酸丛毛单胞菌(\%Comamonas acidovorans\%)AN3菌株中降解苯胺的酶类均为诱导酶,在以苯胺为唯一碳、氮源和能源生长的细胞中,含有苯胺双加氧酶、邻苯二酚2,3双加氧酶、2羟基己二烯半醛酸脱氢酶、4草酰巴豆酸脱羧酶和4羟基2酮戊酸醛缩酶等。苯胺双加氧酶作用于苯胺的\%K\%m值和\%V\%\-\{max\}分别为292μmol/L和3.57μmol\5mg\+\{-1\}·min-1;邻苯二酚2,3双加氧酶作用于邻苯二酚的\%K\%m和\%V\%\-\{max\}分别为16.4 mol/L和15.2μmol\5mg\+\{-1\}\5min\+\{-1\}。根据实验结果,推测了该菌株降解苯胺的代谢途径。     

Investigation of catechol 2,3-dioxygenase and 16S rRNA gene diversity in hypoxic, petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated groundwater

Detection of catechol 2,3-dioxygenase genes in aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated environments gives the opportunity to measure the diversity of bacteria involved in the degradation of the contaminants under aerobic conditions. In this study, we investigated the diversity and distribution of Comamonadaceae family (Betaproteobacteria) related catechol 2,3-dioxygenase genes, which belong to the I.2.C subfamily of extradiol dioxygenase genes. These catabolic genes encode enzymes supposed to function under hypoxic conditions as well, and may play a notable role in BTEX degradation in oxygen limited environments. Therefore, their diversity was analyzed in oxygen limited, petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated groundwater by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism and cloning. Subfamily I.2.C related catechol 2,3-dioxygenase genes were detected in every investigated groundwater sample and a dynamic change was observed in the case of the structure of C23O gene possessing bacterial communities. To link the metabolic capability to the microbial structure, 16S rRNA gene-based clone libraries were generated and it was concluded that Betaproteobacteria were abundant in the bacterial communities of the contaminated samples. These results support the opinion that Betaproteobacteria may play a significant role in BTEX degradation under hypoxic conditions.     

Biodegradation of 2-nitrotoluene by Pseudomonas sp. strain JS42.

A strain of Pseudomonas sp. was isolated from nitrobenzene-contaminated soil and groundwater on 2-nitrotoluene as the sole source of carbon, energy, and nitrogen. Bacterial cells growing on 2-nitrotoluene released nitrite into the growth medium. The isolate also grew on 3-methylcatechol, 4-methylcatechol, and catechol. 2-Nitrotoluene, 3-methylcatechol, and catechol stimulated oxygen consumption by intact cells regardless of the growth substrate. Crude extracts from the isolate contained catechol 2,3-dioxygenase and 2-hydroxy-6-oxohepta-2,4-dienoate hydrolase activity. The results suggest that 2-nitrotoluene is subject to initial attack by a dioxygenase enzyme that forms 3-methylcatechol with concomitant release of nitrite. The 3-methylcatechol is subsequently degraded via the meta ring fission pathway.