Plant identification credibility in ethnobotany: a closer look at Polish ethnographic studies

In Italy, malaria was an endemic disease that was eradicated by the mid-20th century. This paper evaluates the prophylactic and therapeutic remedies used by folk medicine to cure malaria in Calabria (southern Italy). The data has been collected by analysing works of physicians, ethnographers, folklorists and specialists of the study of Calabrian history between the end of the 19th century and the 20th century. The data collected have allowed us to describe the most common cures used by the Calabrian people to treat malaria and the most evident symptoms of this disease, such as intermittent fever, hepato-spleenomegaly, asthenia and dropsy. This approach uncovered a heterogeneous corpus of empirical, magical and religious remedies, which the authors have investigated as evidences of past "expert medicine" and to verify their real effectiveness in the treatment of malaria.     

Water level fluctuations in Lake Baringo,Kenya, during the 19th and 20th centuries: Evidence from lake sediments

This article presents a fossil diatom-based, semi-quantitative reconstruction of water level fluctuations for Lake Baringo over the past 200 years as a consequence of climatic variations. A 285 cm long sediment core sample was collected using a Rod-Operated Single-drive Stationary Piston corer. Lake level was inferred using indices based on the proportion of planktonic to benthic diatom taxa (P/B ratio). The sediment archive presented distinct zones dominated by planktonic and benthic diatom flora. An initial transgression in the early 19th century was characterised as a shallow water environment dominated by planktonic Aulacoseira spp. This was a response to extreme drought during the late 18th to early 19th century. Mid-19th century was defined by a high lake stand. The late 19th to early 20th centuries experienced low water level following the widely documented aridity at the time. The mid-20th century was marked by a spectacular rise in water level that coincided with remarkably wet years during the early 1960s and late 1970s. The first decade of the 21st century witnessed widespread changes in water level. The proxy records show that lake ramping and drawdown over the years follow approximately 50-year climatic cycles.     

Invasions by the Late Blight Pathogen: Renewed Sex and Enhanced Fitness

Introductions of Phytophthora infestans, the oomycete plant pathogen responsible for late blight of potato and tomato, have had devastating human impacts wherever they have occurred. This pathogen was apparently sequestered in central Mexico until the mid-19th century, when introductions into the USA and Europe led to a series of crop failures – the most notable of which resulted in the Irish potato famine. A second series was documented in the late 20th century. There were terrible effects also from the second set of introductions, but no population was as vulnerable as the Irish peasants in the mid-19th century. Examination and comparison of these introductions has taught us that we must be prepared for the invasion of species that are more fit than the current population.     

The geographic ranges of Martes species (Carnivora,Mustelidae) in the Middle Urals in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene

Martes mandibles from Late Pleistocene and Holocene sites in the Middle Urals were identified to the species level using discriminant analysis. As has been shown, sable lived there in the Late Pleistocene, with its geographic range covering all this area until the end of the 18th century; however, its range started to reduce towards the north and northeast in the early 19th century. Over 150 years, the southwestern boundary of the sable range shifted by 3° to reach the current position by the mid-20th century. The pine marten appeared in the Middle Urals in the Holocene no later than 8000 years ago and inhabits this territory at present.     

The Bio-semiotic Roots of Metapsychology

This paper provides an overview of the origins, vicissitudes, and abandonment of ‘metapsychology’, the psycho-biological scientific core of the Freudian opus, and introduces the authors’ key revisions. Although couched in the language of metaphor and analogy from 19th century physics, the conceptual foundations of Freud’s theories contained the seeds of a bio-semiotic theory of mind and of human nature in the natural world. Its updated, modernized, version opens the door to an inter-penetrative epistemology leading to universal principles of logical form, applicable to all types of vital inter-action.     

The biological standard of living in 19th century Mexico and in the American West

During the mid-19th century, the United States acquired Texas and large parts of Mexican territory with the vast Mexican-born population. This paper considers the biological standard of living of the part of this population that was incarcerated in American prisons. We use their physical stature as a proxy for their biological welfare. These data confirm earlier results which showed that adult heights tended to stagnate in Mexico during the late-19th century despite considerable social and political turmoil. While there is some evidence of a decline in height among youth, the decline is slight (<1 cm). As in other 19th century samples, farmers were the tallest. Americans were taller than Mexican prisoners by about 2 cm.     

The history of ranges of the great tit (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Parus major</Emphasis>) and Japanese tit (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Parus minor</Emphasis>) in the Amur Region

The history of ranges of the great tit (Parus major) and Japanese tit (P. minor) in the Amur River basin is described on the basis of original data collected between 1970 and 2010 and published data. The main factor accounting for the expansion of the great and Japanese tits to the Amur basin and neighboring territories in the 19th to 21st centuries is economic activity, primarily agriculture and timber harvesting. The approximate range boundaries and the sympatry zone of these two species have been determined for the second half of the 19th century; the beginning, middle, and third quarter of the 20th century; and the turn of the 21st century. Three different ecological channels consecutively played the main role in the eastward expansion of the great tit: the Amur River valley (from the mid-19th to the early 20th century), the Trans-Siberian Railroad (since the early 20th century), and the Baikal-Amur Railroad (since the 1970s). It is shown that the concept concerning the finding of great tits in Udskii Ostrog by Middendorff’s expedition is erroneous: according to dates on the labels, the corresponding two specimens were in fact collected in a different geographic locality. It has been found that Komsomolsk-on-Amur is a new locality jointly inhabited by both species, independent of the main zone of their sympatry. It has appeared very recently, at the turn of the 21st century.     

The changing place of theory in 20th century ecology: from universal laws to array of methodologies

From the beginning of the 20th century ecologists have tried to do self-sufficient hard science that possesses real theory and laws. Early mathematical models were partly borrowed from physics and chemistry. For a long time they were the characteristic feature of theoretical ecology despite the striking absence of supporting empirical data. In the late 1960s a growing disappointment in "classical" theoretical foundations of ecology forced some researchers to propose "pattern-oriented" models that were derived from observation of real populations, communities and ecosystems, rather than from common sense written in mathematical language. However, this view had its own shortcomings, and in the 1980s it was supplemented by a "mechanistic" approach aimed at understanding basic processes and constraints. This shift of attention from general "laws" to "patterns" and later to "mechanisms" corresponds to an evident weakening of demands for theoretical rigour. Although there are great doubts about the existence of universal laws in ecology, ecologists continue to search for generalities. This search has resulted in an elaboration of methodologies that describe post hoc changes in populations, communities and ecosystems, with limited predictive ability.     

The linking of polyp and medusa stages in Obelia and other coelenterates

Although medusa-release was first seen in Obelia in the mid-18th century (Baster, 1762b), the true nature of medusa-release in any coelenterate was not understood until Sars' (1829) observations on a scyphozoan scyphistoma. A flourish of work followed during which many coelenterate life-cycles were worked out, that of Obelia being among the first (by van Beneden, 1843). The impact on some areas of zoological thought of the mid-19th century was considerable. Around the 1880s Obelia became used in teaching to illustrate and introduce the concept of alternation of generations and, alongside Hydra , as a "type" example of the Hydrozoa and of the Coelenterata. It remained important as a teaching organism for many years.     

Hindcasting of nutrient loadings from its catchment on a highly valuable coastal lagoon: the example of the Fleet, Dorset, UK, 1866–2004

Background

Nutrient loadings from its catchment upon The Fleet, a highly valuable coastal lagoon in Southern England, were hindcast for the period AD 1866–2004, using a catchment model, export coefficients, and historical data on land use changes, livestock numbers, and human population. Agriculture was the main nutrient source throughout, other inputs representing minor contributions. Permanent pasture was historically the main land use, with temporary grassland and cereals increasing during the mid-20th century. Sheep, the main 19th century livestock, were replaced by cattle during the 1930s.

Results

Total nitrogen loadings rose from ca 41 t yr-1 during the late 19th century to 49–54 t yr-1 for the mid-20th, increasing to 98 t yr-1 by 1986. Current values are ca 77 t yr-1. Total phosphorus loads increased from ca 0.75 t yr-1 for the late 19th century to ca 1.6 t yr-1 for the mid-20th, reached ca 2.2 t yr-1 in 1986, and are now ca 1.5 t yr-1. Loadings rose most rapidly between 1946 and 1988, owing to increased use of inorganic fertilisers, and rising sheep and cattle numbers. Livestock were the main nutrient source throughout, but inputs from inorganic fertilisers increased after 1946, peaking in 1986. Sewage treatment works and other sources contribute little nitrogen, but ca 35% of total phosphorus. Abbotsbury Swannery, an ancient Mute Swan community, provides ca 0.5% of total nitrogen, and ca 5% of total phosphorus inputs.

Conclusion

The Fleet has been grossly overloaded with nitrogen since 1866, climaxing during the 1980s. Total phosphorus inputs lay below 'permissible' limits until the 1980s, exceeding them in inner, less tidal parts of the lagoon, during the 1940s. Loadings on Abbotsbury Bay exceeded 'permissible' limits by the 1860s, becoming 'dangerous' during the mid-20th century. Phosphorus stripping at point sources will not significantly reduce loadings to all parts of the lagoon. Installation of 5 m buffer strips throughout the catchment and shoreline will marginally affect nitrogen loadings, but will reduce phosphorus inputs to the West Fleet below 'permissible' limits. Only a combination of measures will significantly affect Abbotsbury Bay, where, without effluent diversion, loadings will remain beyond 'permissible'.     

Physics,biology, and sociology: A reappraisal

To the extent that all biological phenomena are perceivable only through their physical manifestations, it may be justified to assume that all biological phenomena will be eventually represented in terms of physics; perhaps not of present day physics, but of some “extended” form of it. However, even if this should be correct, it must be kept in mind that representing individual biological phenomena in terms of physics is not the same as deducing from known physical laws the necessity of biological phenomena. Drawing an analogy from pure mathematics, it is possible that while every biological phenomenon may be represented in terms of physics, yet biological statements represent a class of “undecidable” statements within the framework of physics. Such a conjecture is reinforced by the history of physics itself and illustrated on several examples. The 19th century physicists tried in vain todeduce electromagnetic phenomena from mechanical ones. A similar situation may exist in regard to biological and social sciences. Quite generally, the possibility of representing a class B phenomena in terms of class A phenomena does not imply that the phenomena of class B can be deduced from those of class A. The consequences of the above on the relation between physics, biology, and sociology are studied. A tentative postulational formulation of basic biological principles are given and some consequences are discussed. It is pointed out that not only can the study of biological phenomena throw light on some physical phenomena, but that the study of social phenomena may be of value for the understanding of the structures and functions of living organisms. The possibility of a sort of “socionics” is indicated.     

The contribution of plant biology to the concept of virus (1886-1917).

Between 1860 and 1880 the so-called "theory of the infective germ", which stated in final way that every infectious disease was produced by a living pathogen agent, achieved great consent. The criteria of determining the presence of infectious pathogens (fungi, bacteria, protozoa) were established by "Koch's postulate", a set of experimental procedures conceived for isolating and determining single pathogens. In the last quarter of the 19th century became however evident that the agents of severe infectious diseases could not be identified through the "postulates". These agents could not be seen in light microscopy nor cultured in vitro but could pass through the thin pores of filters which hold back cellular micro-organisms. This last characteristic became a selective method to recognise these peculiar agents, from then named "filterable viruses". Most microbiologists considered the filterable viruses as living micro-organisms because of their extraordinary capacity of in vivo proliferation, and the impossibility of pointing out their structures was due to limits of the experimental techniques. Between the end of the 19th century and 1917, four plant biologists suggested that the filterable viruses were complex chemical substances rather than cellular microorganisms. Their contribution, not appreciated by the contemporary colleagues, laid the foundation of the modern concept of virus.     

The foundations and development of lipidomics

For over a century, the importance of lipid metabolism in biology was recognized but difficult to mechanistically understand due to the lack of sensitive and robust technologies for identification and quantification of lipid molecular species. The enabling technological breakthroughs emerged in the 1980s with the development of soft ionization methods (Electrospray Ionization and Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization) that could identify and quantify intact individual lipid molecular species. These soft ionization technologies laid the foundations for what was to be later named the field of lipidomics. Further innovative advances in multistage fragmentation, dramatic improvements in resolution and mass accuracy, and multiplexed sample analysis fueled the early growth of lipidomics through the early 1990s. The field exponentially grew through the use of a variety of strategic approaches, which included direct infusion, chromatographic separation, and charge-switch derivatization, which facilitated access to the low abundance species of the lipidome. In this Thematic Review, we provide a broad perspective of the foundations, enabling advances, and predicted future directions of growth of the lipidomics field.     

The ghost of Christmas past: health effects of poverty in London in 1896 and 1991

ObjectivesTo compare the extent to which late 20th century patterns of mortality in London are predicted by contemporary patterns of poverty and by late 19th century patterns of poverty. To test the hypothesis that the pattern of mortality from causes known to be related to deprivation in early life can be better predicted by the distribution of poverty in the late 19th century than by that in the late 20th century.DesignData from Charles Booth''s survey of inner London in 1896 were digitised and matched to contemporary local government wards. Ward level indices of relative poverty were derived from Booth''s survey and the 1991 UK census of population. All deaths which took place within the surveyed area between 1991 and 1995 were identified and assigned to contemporary local government wards. Standardised mortality ratios for various causes of death were calculated for each ward for all ages, under age 65, and over age 65. Simple correlation and partial correlation analysis were used to estimate the contribution of the indices of poverty from 1896 and 1991 in predicting ward level mortality ratios in the early 1990s.SettingInner London.ResultsFor many causes of death in London, measures of deprivation made around 1896 and 1991 both contributed strongly to predicting the current spatial distribution. Contemporary mortality from diseases which are known to be related to deprivation in early life (stomach cancer, stroke, lung cancer) is predicted more strongly by the distribution of poverty in 1896 than that in 1991. In addition, all cause mortality among people aged over 65 was slightly more strongly related to the geography of poverty in the late 19th century than to its contemporary distribution.ConclusionsContemporary patterns of some diseases have their roots in the past. The fundamental relation between spatial patterns of social deprivation and spatial patterns of mortality is so robust that a century of change in inner London has failed to disrupt it.     

A review of systematics,distribution and ecology of tropical freshwater zooplankton

Studies on tropical freshwater zooplankton which commenced in the mid-19th century have been intensified during the past twenty years or so. The whole region, barring a few areas, has been investigated, including very recently tropical Australia. The widely scattered literature is briefly summarized with comments. Some general distributional patterns are emerging. There is a dearth of ecological studies especially on seasonality and production. Systematics lags behind the North Temperate zone in most tropical regions.     

Early African Diaspora in colonial Campeche, Mexico: strontium isotopic evidence

Construction activities around Campeche's central park led to the discovery of an early colonial church and an associated burial ground, in use from the mid-16th century AD to the late 17th century. Remains of some individuals revealed dental mutilations characteristic of West Africa. Analyses of strontium isotopes of dental enamel from these individuals yielded unusually high (87)Sr/(86)Sr ratios, inconsistent with an origin in Mesoamerica, but consistent with an origin in West Africa in terrain underlain by the West Africa Craton, perhaps near the port of Elmina, a principal source of slaves for the New World during the 16th century. These individuals likely represent some of the earliest representatives of the African Diaspora in the Americas.     

Similarities and Varieties: A Brief Sketch on the Reception of Darwinism and Sociobiology in Japan

This paper discusses the reception of Darwinian evolutionary theory and sociobiology in Japan. Darwinism was introduced into Japan in the late 19th century and Japanese people readily accepted the concept of evolution because, lacking Christianity, there was no religious opposition. However, the theory of evolution was treated as a kind of social scientific tool, i.e., social Spencerism and eugenics. Although evolutionary biology was developed during the late 19th and the early 20th century, orthodox Darwinian theory was neglected for a long time. In the mid 1980s, sociobiology was introduced but it was ignored and criticized by a large part of the ecologist-evolutionist community in Japan. This hostile attitude was due to the absence of Darwinism among these scientists. Compared with the reception of sociobiology in English-speaking countries, there were both similarities and differences in Japan.