Living conditions and the health of two social groups inhabiting a squatter settlement in Calcutta, India

Squatter dwellers are found in almost all the Third World countries. Poor living conditions are the characteristic features of all the squatter settlements. Again, poor living conditions are also associated with the health condition of the squatter dwellers. In the present study an attempt has been made to compare and contrast the living condition of two social groups (Hindu and Muslim) inhabiting a squatter settlement in Calcutta, India. The results show that the overall living condition of the Muslim is worse than that of the Hindu. The morbidity pattern is also worse in the Muslim than in the Hindu.     

Neonatal mortality and prevalence of practices for newborn care in a squatter settlement of Karachi, Pakistan: a cross-sectional study

Background

During the past two decades there has been a sustained decline in child and infant mortality, however neonatal mortality has remained relatively unchanged. Almost all neonatal deaths (99%) occur in developing countries, where the majority are delivered at homes. Evidence suggests that these deaths could be prevented by simple, inexpensive practices and interventions during the pregnancy, delivery and postnatal period. In Pakistan over the last decade extensive efforts have been made by the international donors and government to implement these practices. However, limited attempts have been made to explore if these efforts have made a difference at the grass root level. This study assessed the burden of neonatal mortality and prevalence of practices for newborn care in a squatter settlement of Karachi, Pakistan.

Methodology/Principal Findings

A community based cross-sectional study was performed. A pre-tested structured questionnaire was administered to 565 women who had recently delivered. Information was collected on neonatal morbidity, mortality and practices of women regarding care during pregnancy, child birth and for newborn, till 28th day of birth. Although 70% of women mentioned receiving antenatal care by a skilled provider, only 54.5% had four or more visits. Tetanus toxoid was received by 79% of women while only 56% delivered at a health care facility by a skilled attendant. Newborn care practices like bathing the baby immediately after birth (56%), giving pre-lacteals (79.5%), late initiation of breast feeding (80.3%), application of substances on umbilical cord (58%) and body massage (89%) were common. Most neonates (81.1%) received BCG injection and polio drops after birth. Neonatal mortality rate was 27/1000 live births with the majority of deaths occurring during the first three days of life.

Conclusion

Even after years of efforts by government and nongovernmental sector to reduce newborn morbidity and mortality, inadequate antenatal care, home deliveries and unhealthy newborn care practices are highly prevalent. This leads us to important questions of why practices and behaviors have not changed. Who is responsible and what strategies are needed to bring this change?     

Baboons (Papio anubis) living in larger social groups have bigger brains

The evolutionary origin of Primates' exceptionally large brains is still highly debated. Two competing explanations have received much support: the ecological hypothesis and the social brain hypothesis (SBH). We tested the SBH in (n = 82) baboons (Papio anubis) belonging to the same research centre but housed in groups with size ranging from 2 to 63 individuals. We found that baboons living in larger social groups had larger brains. This effect was driven mainly by white matter volume and to a lesser extent by grey matter volume but not by the cerebrospinal fluid. In comparison, the size of the enclosure, an ecological variable, had no such effect. In contrast to the current re-emphasis on potential ecological drivers of primate brain evolution, the present study provides renewed support for the social brain hypothesis and suggests that the social brain plastically responds to group size. Many factors may well influence brain size, yet accumulating evidence suggests that the complexity of social life might be an important determinant of brain size in primates.     

Mathematical biology of division of labor between two individuals or two social groups

The concept of the satisfaction function is applied to the situation in which two individuals may each produce two needed objects of satisfaction, or may each produce only one of the objects and then make a partial exchange. It is shown that with a logarithmic satisfaction function there is no advantage in a division of labor, unless such a division materially increases the purely physical efficiency of production. This result appears to be connected with the particular choice of the form of satisfaction function (logarithmic). While the problem has not been solved for other forms, it is made plausible that satisfaction functions which have an asymptote will lead to a different result. Next the case is studied in which division of labor occurs between two groups of individuals. It is shown that in this case the relative sizes of the two groups are determined from considerations of maximum satisfaction. Possible applications to problems of urbanization are suggested.     

Comparing composition of social groups,mating system and social behaviour in two populations of Microcavia australis

Microcavia australis is a semifossorial, diurnal and social rodent, native to South America. The objective was to determine and compare the composition of social groups, mating system and social behaviours of cavies in two populations of the Monte (El Leoncito and Ñacuñán). The two sites differ in climate conditions and plant resource availability. Trapping was carried out on 7–11 consecutive days at three times of the year (food abundance, food shortage, reproduction), from 2003 to 2005. Individuals were identified with metal ear tags. Continuous focal samplings were performed during 4 days. The female/male proportion per group was 1/1 at both sites which, together with the absence of sexual dimorphism in body size (0.94), the accomplishment of oestrus synchronization, the large size of scrotal testes during the reproductive season and sexual patterns, suggests a promiscuous mating system. Social groups were larger and with more adults at the site with more severe climate conditions (El Leoncito). The index of association among individuals was higher at El Leoncito. Cavies could use seismic communication to avoid encounters ending in fights at El Leoncito, and the agonistic behaviour was significantly lower in this population.     

Conflict and reconciliation in two groups of crab-eating monkeys differing in social status by birth

Two groups of captive macaques (M. fascicularis) were studied at Kassel University, Germany. One included animals whose mothers were high-ranking, another, those whose mothers were low-ranking. The first group was a despotic community in which conflicts were severe and occurred mainly between single individuals; the reconciliation tendency was weak, the male leader was the controlling animal, and the affiliative preferences were marked. The second group was an egalitarian community split into two mutually hostile conalitions; the conflicts were less severe, the tendency for reconciliation was strong, the male leader could control only his own bloc and had no strong affiliative ties with other group members.     

Estimating relatedness in social groups

Genetic relatedness is a vital parameter in the evolution of social behaviour by kin selection. It can be easily estimated using genetic markers and calculating the genotypic correlation or regression of group members. Spatial gene frequency differentiation, due to population subdivision or isolation by distance, boosts the relatedness estimates. In such cases it may be useful to partition the estimate into components, the operational relatedness is normally that among individuals in social groups within the same subpopulation. Although it is straightforward to estimate the average relatedness in social groups, estimating values for specific individuals with the help of genetic markers is still problematic. Current estimators tend to give biased values and the sampling error is large. In spite of these shortcomings, studies of social behaviour combining relatedness and reproductive success are sorely needed.     

Changes in the social structure of two groups of stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides)

Two previously studied groups of stumptail macaques were restudied to investigate stabilities and instabilities within group structures. Frequency data for nonsocial and dyad behaviors were collected. While there was considerable group stability, several important changes occurred. The most noteworthy group changes were in grooming and playing. Individual changes centered upon females. The first and fourth ranking females of one group switched dominance positions. The roots of this reversal were minimally reflected by aggressive and submissive interactions, and more fully exposed by quiet association patterns such as grooming, huddling, and sitting together. Increased frequencies of huddling, touching, and approaching indicated that the lowest ranking female of each group moved closer to other group members. There was no hint of this change in agonistic interactions.     

Note on the spread of a state in small social groups

A model is developed for the spread of a state in small social groups. Under suitable assumptions the model exhibits formal identity with Markov chain theory. The basic theorems and classifications of Markov chain theory are stated and interpreted in terms of the model. Finally, some procedures for testing the model are indicated.     

Male and female mice living in differently-sized groups

Summary The influence of crowding in different group sizes on the metabolism of serotonin (5-HT) in six different brain areas and on some peripheral data in male and female mice was investigated. In the cortex, the diencephalon and in the basal ganglia, the 5-HT turnover of male mice increases with group size. The females react differently (Figs. 2, 3, 4). The densityinduced changes in the 5-HT metabolism of the mesencephalon correlated individually with the locomotor reactivity of the animals in an open-field (Figs. 8, 9). The septal area is the only part of the brain in male and female mice in which the 5-HT turnover increase depends on group size (Fig. 5).We wish to thank the Deutsche Abbott GmbH which supplied us with pargyline.     

Variation and consistency in the social behavior of two groups of stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides)

Social interactions of two five-member groups of stumptail macaques were observed. Behavior of all but one of these animals has been reported in two previous studies. In the third study, high-ranking females maintained their positions in the dominance order when the alpha male with whom they were previously associated was either removed from the group or displaced by a male added to the group. The results of all three studies indicated a tendency for interaction among animals holding adjacent hierarchical ranks. The data suggested that one function of selective grooming was pacifying the grooming partner, and that one function of selective adult play was behavior testing under conditions of moderate arousal.     

Infanticide and social change in two groups of the hanuman langur,Presbytis entellus,at Jodhpur

Infanticide and social change in two neighbouring bisexual groups of the langur,Presbytis entellus, at Jodhpur (at the eastern edge of the Great Indian Desert), during a two-year period are described. Here the fluidity of leadership is more marked than in other primates. The change of leadership is sometimes associated with infanticide. Other features noted were: that neighbouring bisexual groups may temporarily fuse into one; and that intergroup presentations and copulations may occur.     

Contrasting effects of living in heterosexual pairs and mixed groups on the structure of social attraction in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri).

The structure of social attraction was assessed in pair- and group-living squirrel monkeys (Saimiri) using paired-comparison and single-stimulus preference tests. Effects of the social environment were most prominent in females. Females housed with a single male showed sharply increased attraction to like-sex strangers and less pronounced increase in attraction to opposite-sex strangers, as compared to group-living females. Differences between pair- and group-living males were in the same direction found with females, but less extreme. Most group-living monkeys strongly preferred familiar animals to strangers regardless of sex, and like-sex to opposite-sex familiars. Change in the structure of social attractions in response to variations in the composition of the social environment appears to be an important factor in the maintenance of the species-typical grouping pattern in the squirrel monkey.     

Tendency-distance models of social cohesion in animal groups

Although it has been assumed that attraction and repulsion between social individuals constitute a basis for group cohesion, there has been no systematic study of the possible ways in which these tendencies might vary with inter-individual distance (IID), or of associated implications for group structure. In this paper, a family of attraction/repulsion--distance functions is described. Computer simulation was used to examine the effects of each function on group cohesion, as reflected by mean values and variability in IID and group shape. Our results showed that: (a) all models led to stability in group structure, but differed significantly in terms of stable IID and group shape characteristics; (b) cohesion was best served by an upwardly convex behaviour--distance function in which maximum attraction equaled maximum repulsion (and the biological plausibility of this function is discussed); (c) group elongation and variability in mean IID were significantly positively correlated; (d) although dyads maintained an equilibrial separation distance, at which attraction balanced repulsion, in larger groups stable nearest neighbour distances were often less than the equilibrium distance; and (e) individuals needed to monitor and respond to only relatively few of their companions in order to avoid group fragmentation.